Transgenic mice having a human major histocompatibility complex (mhc) phenotype, experimental uses and applications

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to transgenic mice and isolated transgenic mouse cells, the mice and mouse cells comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA class I transgene, and a functional HLA class II transgene. In embodiments, the transgenic mouse or mouse cells are deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA class II transgene. In embodiments, the transgenic mouse or mouse cell has the genotype HLA-A2 + HLA-DR1 + β2m°IAβ°. The invention also relates to methods of using a transgenic mouse of the invention.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 10/586,386,filed Oct. 17, 2006, now abandoned, which is a U.S. National Stage Entryof PCT/IB2004/002374, filed Jul. 5, 2004, which claims the benefit ofU.S. Provisional Application No. 60/490,945, filed Jul. 30, 2003, theentire disclosure of which is relied upon and incorporated by referenceherein for all purposes.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Many vaccines are currently being developed for human cancerimmunotherapy and for treatment of infectious diseases, such as malaria,AIDS, hepatitis C virus, and SARS. Given the rapidity with which newemerging pathogens can appear, it is important to improve animal modelsthat could be used to evaluate vaccination strategies and the protectivecapacity of different epitopes quickly and reliably. Furthermore, invivo studies are already required to assess crucial variables of vaccinebehavior that are not easily evaluated or impossible to measure invitro, such as vaccine immunogenicity, vaccine formulation, route ofadministration, tissue distribution, and involvement of primary andsecondary lymphoid organs. Because of their simplicity and flexibility,small animals, such as mice represent an attractive alternative to morecumbersome and expensive model systems, such as nonhuman primates, atleast for initial vaccine development studies.

The moderate efficacy observed in several clinical trials of vaccines,which were found to be protective in wild-type animal studies(McMichael, A. J. & Hanke, T. Nat Med 9, 874-880 (2003)), may be partlyexplained by the different influence that human and animal MHC have onthe outcome of the immune response, since animal MHC and human HLAmolecules do not present the same optimal epitopes (Rotzschke, O. et al.Nature 348, 252-254 (1990)). Thus, despite some limitations, transgenicmice expressing human HLA should represent a useful improvement overwild-type mice as a preclinical model for testing vaccine candidates,evaluating the potential risk that the vaccines could induce autoimmunedisorders, and devising better therapeutic strategies based on the humanrestriction element.

Cytotoxic T Cells

Cytotoxic T cells (CTL) play a crucial role in the eradication ofinfectious diseases and in some cases, cancer (P. Aichele, H.Hengartner, R. M. Zinkernagel and M. Schulz, J Exp Med 171 (1990), p.1815; L. BenMohamed, H. Gras-Masse, A. Tartar, P. Daubersies, K Brahimi,M. Bossus, A. Thomas and P. Druhile, Eur J Immunol 27 (1997), p. 1242;D. J. Diamond, J. York, J. Sun, C. L. Wright and S. J. Forman, Blood 90(1997), p. 1751). Recombinant protein vaccines do not reliably induceCTL responses (Habeshaw J A, Dalgleish A G, Bountiff L, Newell A L,Wilks, D, Walker L C, Manca F. 1990 November; 11(11): 418-25; Miller SB, Tse H, Rosenspire A J, King S R. Virology. 1992 December; 191 (2):973-7). The use of otherwise immunogenic vaccines consisting ofattenuated pathogens in humans is hampered, in several importantdiseases, by overriding safety concerns. In the last few years,epitope-based approaches have been proposed as a possible strategy todevelop novel prophylactic and immunotherapeutic vaccines (Melief C J,Offringa R, Toes R E, Kast W M. Curr Opin Immunol. 1996 October,8(5):651-7; Chesnut R W, Design testing of peptide based cytotoxicT-cell mediated imrnunotherapeutic to treat infiction disease, cancer,in Ppowell, M F, Newman, M J (eds.): Vaccine Design: The Subunit,Adjuvant Approach, Plenum Press, New-York 1995, 847). This approachoffers several advantages, including selection of naturally processedepitopes, which forces the immune system to focus on highly conservedand immunodominant epitopes of a pathogen (R. G. van der Most, A. Sette,C. Oseroff, J. Alexander, K. Murali-Krishna, L. L. Lau, S, Southwood, J.Sidney, R. W. Chesnut, M. Matioubian and R. Ahmed, J Immunol 157 (1996),p. 5543) and induction of multiepitopic responses to prevent escape bymutation such observed in HIV, hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis Cvirus (HCV) infections. It also allows the elimination of suppressive Tcell determinants, which might preferably elicit a TH2 response, inconditions where a TH1 responses is desirable, or vice-versa (PfeifferC, Murray J, Madri J, Bottomly K. Immunol Rev. 1991 October; 123:65-84;P Chaturvedi, Q Yu, S Southwood, A Sette, and B Singh Int Immunol 19968: 745-755). It finally provides the possibility to get rid ofautoimmune T cell determinants in antigens, which might induceundesirable autoimmune diseases. Protective antiviral or anti-tumoralimmunity using CTL epitope-peptides has been achieved in severalexperimental models (D. J. Diamond, J. York, J. Sun, C. L. Wright and S.J. Forman, Blood 90 1997, p. 1751; J. E. J. Blaney, E. Nobusawa, M. A.Brehm, R. H. Bonneau, L. M. Mylin, T. M. Fu, Y. Kawaoka and S. S.Tevethia, J Virol 72 (1998), p. 9567).

CTL epitope definition based on the usage of human lymphocytes might bemisleading due to environmental and genetic heterogeneity that lead toincomplete results, and due to technical difficulties in isolating CTLclones. HLA class I or class II transgenic mice described to date haveproved to be a valuable tool to overcome these limitations asillustrated by the identification with such animal models of novel CTLand T helper epitopes (Hill A V. Annu Rev Immunol. 1998; 16:593-617;Carmon L, EI-Shami K M, Paz A., Pascolo S, Tzehoval E, Tirosb B, KorenR, Feldman M, Fridkin M, Lemonnier F A, Eisenbach L. Int J Cancer, 2000Feb. 1; 85(3):391-7). These mice have also been used to demonstrate: i)good correlation between peptide HLA binding affinity and immunogenicity(Lustgarten J, Theobald M, Labadie C, LaFace D, Peterson P, Disis M L,Cheaver M A, Sherman L A. Hum Immunol. 1997 February; 52(2):109-18;Bakker A B, van der Burg S H, Huijbens R J, DRijfhout J W, Melief C J,Adema G J, Figdor C G. Int J Cancer. 1997 Jan. 27; 70(3):302-9), ii)significant overlap between the murine and human CTL system at the levelof antigen processing (same epitopes generated), and iii) comparablemobilization against most antigens of the CTL repertoires in HLAtransgenic mice and humans (Wentworth, P. A., A. Vifiello, J. Sidney, E.Keogh, P, W. Chesnut, H. Grey, A. Sette. 1996. Eur. J. Immunol. 26:97;Alexander, J., C. Oserof, J. Sidney, P. Wentworth, E. Keogh, G.Hermanson, F. V. Chisari R. T, Kubo, H. M, Grey, A, Sette, 1997. J.Immunol. 159:4753).

To date, synthetic peptide-based CTL epitope vaccines have beendeveloped as immunotherapeutics against a number of human diseases[18-20]. However, only moderate efficacy was observed in severalclinical trials (21). This may be partly explained by the failure ofthese vaccines to induce sufficiently strong CTL responses. Indeed,recent reports suggest the need for CD4+ T-cell help to obtain maximumCTL response (A. J. Zajac, K. Murali-Krishna, J. N. Blattman and R.Ahmed, Curr Opin Immunol 10 (1998), p. 444; Firat H, Garcia-Pons F,Tourdot S, Pascolo S, Scardino A, Garcia Z, Michel M L, Jack R W, JungO, Kosmatopoulos K, Mateo L, Suhrbier A, Lemonnier F A,Langlade-Dernoyen P Eur J Irmnunol 29, 3112, 1999).

CTL are critical components of protective immunity against viralinfections, but the requirements for in vivo priming of CTL are notcompletely understood. It is now accepted that Th cells are usuallyessential for CTL priming with synthetic peptides. With respect tosynthetic CTL epitopic peptides, several studies point to a mandatoryneed for Th lymphocyte stimulation to induce optimal CTL responses (C.Fayolle, E. Deriaud and C. Leclerc, J Immunol 147 (1991), p, 4069; C.Widmann, P. Romero, J. L. Maryanski, G. Corradin and D. Valmori, JImmunol Meth 155 (1992), p. 95; M. Shirai, C. D. Pendkton, J. Ahlers, T.Takeshita, M. Newman and J. A. Berzofsky, J Immunol 152 (1994), p. 549;J. P. Sauet, H. Gras-Masse, J. G. Guillet and E. Gomard, Int Immunol 8(1996). p. 457). Several of these studies showed that activation of aCD8+ T cell requires simultaneous interaction of a CD4+ T helper celland a CD8+ T cell with the same antigen-presenting cell presenting theircognate epitopes (Ridge J P, Di Rosa F, Matzinger P. Nature. 1998 Jun.4; 3 93 (6684):474-8). The relevance of this three-cell interaction forpriming of CTLs is confirmed by studies with viral epitopes, and animalmodels, since in vivo induction of CTLs was most efficient when CTL andTh epitopes were physically linked rather than administered as anunlinked mixture (Shirai M, Pendleton C D, Ahlers J, Takeshita T, NewmanM, Berzohky J A. J Immunol. 1994 Jan. 15; 152(2): 549-56; Oseroff C,Sette A, Wentworth P, Celis E, Maewal A, Dahlberg C, Fikes J, Kubo R T,Chesnut R W, Grey B X Alexander J. Vaccine. 1998 May; 16(8): 823-33).The capacity of CTL and Th antigenic peptides to efficiently induce CTLresponses has been demonstrated both in experimental models (C. Fayolle,E. Deriaud and C. Leclerc, J Immunol 147 (1991), p, 4069; C. Widmann, P.Romero, J. L. Maryanski, G. Corradin and D. Valmori, J Immunol Meth 155(1992), p. 95) and in humans (A. Vitiello, G. Ishioka, H. M. Grey, R.Rose, P. Famess, R. LaFond, L. Yuan, F. V. Chisari, J. Furze and R.Bartholomeuz, J Clin Invest 95 (1995), p. 341; B. Livingston, C. Crimi,H. Grey, G. Ishioka, F. V. Chisari, J. Fikes, H. M. Grey, R. Chesnut andA. Sette, J Immunol 159 (1997), p. 1383). Moreover, a potent Th responseplays an important role not only for optimal induction of CTL responses,but also for maintenance of CTL memory (E. A. Walter, P. D. Greenberg,M. J. Gilbert, R. J. Finch, K-S. Watanabe, E. D. Tbomas and S. R.Riddell, N Engl J Med 333 (1995), p. 1038; Riddell S R, Greenberg P D,In Thomas E D, Blume K G, Forman S J (eds): Hematopoietic CellTransplantation, 2nd edn. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Science Inc., 1999).Finally, it has long been documented that CD4+ T “helper” cells arecrucial in coordinating cellular and humoral immune responses againstexogenous antigens.

Recently, a transgenic (Tg) mouse that expresses both HLA-A*0201 class Iand HLA-DR1 class II molecules was established (BenMohamed L, KrishnanR, Longmate J, Auge C, Low L, Primus J, Diamond D J, Hum, Immunol. 2000August; 61(8):764-79). The authors reported that both HLA-A*0201 andHLA-DR1 transgenes are functional in vivo, that both MHC class I andclass II molecules were utilized as restriction elements, and that theproduct of the HLA-DR1 transgene enhances the HLA-A*0201-restrictedantigen-specific CTL responses (BenMohamed L, Krishnan R, Longmate J,Auge C, Low L, Primus J, Diamond D J, Hum, Immunol. 2000 August;61(8):764-79).

It is noteworthy that these HLA-A*0201/DR1 Tg mice expressed their ownMHC H-2 class I and class II molecules. Because HLA class I transgenicmice expressing endogenous mouse MHC class I genes preferentially andoften exclusively develop H-2 restricted CTL response (C Barra, HGournier, Z Garcia, P N Marche, E Jouvin-Marche, P Briand, P Fillipi,and F A Lemonnier J Immunol 1993 150: 3681-3689; Epstein H, Hardy F.,May J S, Johnson M H, Holmes N. Eur J Immunol. 1989 September;19(9):1575-83; Le A X; E J Bernhard, M J Holterman, S Strub, P Parham, ELacy, and V H Engelhard J Immunol 1989 142: 13 66-1371; Vitiello A,Marchesini D, Furze J, Sherman L A, Chesnut R W., J Exp Med. 1991 Apr.1; 173(4):100715), and HLA class II transgenic mice expressingendogenous mouse MHC class II genes fail to induce reliable HLA class IIrestricted antigen-specific responses (Nishimura Y, Iwanaga T, InamitsuT, Yanagawa Y, Yasunami M, Kimura A, Hirokawa K, Sasazuki T., J Immunol1990 Jul. 1; 145(1):353-60), these HLA-A*0201/DR1 Tg mice are of limitedutility to assess human-specific responses to antigen.

However, in HLA class I transgenic H-2 class I knock-out mice, or HLAclass II transgenic H-2 class II knock-out mice, only HLA-restricted CTLimmune responses occur (Pascolo S, Bervas N, Ure J M, Smith A G,Lemonnier F A, Perarnau, B., J Exp Med. 1997 Jun. 16; 185(12). 2043-51;Madsen L, Labrecque N, Engberg J, Dierich A, Svejgaard A, Benoist C,Mathis D, Fugger L., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA—1999 Aug. 31;96(18):10338-43). In fact, HLA-A2.1-transgenic H-2 class I-knock-out(KO) mice exhibit the ability to mount enhanced HLA-A2.1-restrictedresponses as compared to HLA-A2.1-transgenic mice that still express theendogenous murine H-2 class I molecules (Pascolo, S. et al. J Exp Med185, 2043-2051 (1997); Ureta-Vidal, A., Firat, H., Perarnau, B. &Lemonnier, F. A. J Immunol 163, 2555-2560 (1999); Firat, H. et al., IntImmunol 14, 925-934 (2002); Rohrlich, P. S. et al., Int Immunol 15,765-772 (2003)). The inventors have made similar observations withHLA-DR1-transgenic mice, depending on whether or not they are deficientin H-2 class II molecules (A. Pajot, unpublished results). Furthermore,in the absence of competition from murine MHC molecules, theHLA-A2.1-transgenic H-2 class I-KO or HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class II-KOmice generate only HLA-restricted immune responses (Pascolo, S. et al. JExp Med 185, 2043-2051 (1997)) (A. Pajot, unpublished results),facilitating the monitoring of HLA-restricted CD8⁺ and CD4⁺ T cellresponses. However, protective immune responses against pathogens, whichoften require collaboration between T helper and cytotoxic CD8⁺ T cells,cannot be studied in the single HLA class I- or HLA class II-transgenicmice, which do not allow the simultaneous assessment of HLA class I andII human responses in the same mouse.

Accordingly, there exists a need in the art for a convenient animalmodel system to test the immunogenicity of human vaccine candidatescomprising constructs containing human CTL epitopes and, in some cases,with the inclusion of high potency CD4+ Th (helper T lymphocyte)epitopes to sustain antiviral and antitumoral CD8+ T-cell activity (A.J. Zajac, K. Murali-Krishna, J. N. Blattman and R. Ahmed, Curr OpinImmunol 10 (1998), p. 444; Firat H, Garcia-Pons F, Tourdot S, Pascolo S,Scardino A, Garcia Z, Michel M L, Jack R W, Jung O, Kosmatopoulos K,Mateo L, Suhrbier A, Lemonnier F A, Langlade-Dernoyen P, Eur J Irmnunol29, 3112, 1999). There is also a need for a system that allows thesimultaneous assessment of the mutual coordination between a CTLresponse, a TH response (in particular s TH₁ or TH₂ response), and,optionally, a humoral response.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The inventors have met this need and more by providing mice transgenicfor both HLA-A2.1 and HLA-DR1 molecules, in a background that isdeficient for both H-2 class I and class II molecules. Specifically, theinvention provides mice comprising (1) mutated H-2 class I and class IImolecules; and (2) expressing HLA class I transgenic molecules, or HLAclass II transgenic molecules, or HLA class I transgenic molecules andHLA class II transgenic molecules. These mice provide a model useful inthe development and optimization of vaccine constructs with maximum invivo immunogenicity for human use. Specifically, such mice enable acomplete analysis of the three components of the immune adaptiveresponse (antibody, helper and cytolytic) in a single animal, as well asan evaluation of the protection specifically conferred by vaccinationagainst an antigenic challenge.

Mice of the invention, which comprise a knock-out for both H-2 class Iand class II molecules, and express HLA class I transgenic molecules andHLA class II transgenic molecules represent a completely humanizedexperimental mouse that can be used to simultaneously detect thepresence of antigen-specific antibodies, an antigen-specific HLA-DRIrestricted T cell response, and an antigen-specific HLA-A2 restricted Tcell response. These mice will be useful to study how mutualcoordination operates between a CTL response, a TH response (inparticular a TH₁ or TH₂ response), and, optionally, a humoral response.These mice represent an optimized tool for basic and applied vaccinologystudies.

A first embodiment of the invention provides a transgenic mousecomprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene,and a functional HLA class I or class II transgene.

A second embodiment of the invention provides a transgenic mousecomprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, afunctional HLA class I transgene, and a functional HLA class IItransgene.

In some embodiments, the HLA class I transgene is an HLA-A2 transgeneand the HLA class II transgene is an HLA-DR1 transgene. In otherembodiments, the HLA-A2 transgene comprises the HLA-A2 sequence providedin the sequence listing and the HLA-DR1 transgene comprises the HLA-DR1sequence provided in the sequence listing.

A further embodiment of the invention provides a transgenic mousedeficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein thetransgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and afunctional HLA class II transgene. In an embodiment, the mouse has thegenotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°. In some embodiments the HLA-A2transgene comprises the HLA-A2 sequence provided in the sequence listingand the HLA-DR1 transgene comprises the HLA-DR1 sequence provided in thesequence listing.

Another embodiment of the invention provides a method of simultaneouslyidentifying the presence of one or more epitopes in a candidate antigenor group of antigens, where the one or more epitopes elicits a specifichumoral response, a TH HLA-DR1 restricted response, and/or a CTRL HLA-A2restricted response. The method comprises administering the candidateantigen or group of candidate antigens to a transgenic mouse comprisinga disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functionalHLA-A2 transgene, and a functional HLA-DR1 transgene, or a transgenicmouse deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein thetransgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and afunctional HLA class II transgene, and has the genotypeHLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°; assaying for a specific humoral response in themouse to the antigen; assaying for a TH HLA-DR1 restricted response inthe mouse to the antigen; and assaying for a CTRL HLA-A2 restrictedresponse in the mouse to the antigen. Observation of a specific humoralresponse in the mouse to the antigen identifies an epitope that elicitsa humoral response in the antigen. Observation of a TH HLA-DR1restricted response in the mouse to the antigen identifies an epitopethat elicits a TH HLA-DR1 restricted response in the antigen.Observation of a CTRL HLA-A2 restricted response in the mouse to theantigen identifies an epitope which elicits a CTRL HLA-A2 restrictedresponse in the antigen.

In some embodiments, the method includes assaying for a Th1-specificresponse in the mouse to the antigen and assaying for a Th2-specificresponse in the mouse to the antigen. In this case, observation of aTh1-specific response in the mouse to the antigen identifies an epitopethat elicits a Th1-specific response in the mouse to the antigen, andobservation of a Th2-specific response in the mouse to the antigenidentifies an epitope that elicits a Th2-specific response in the mouseto the antigen.

This invention also provides a method of identifying the presence of anHLA DR1-restricted T helper epitope in a candidate antigen or group ofcandidate antigens, the method comprising administering the candidateantigen or group of candidate antigens to a transgenic mouse comprisinga disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functionalHLA-A2 transgene, and a functional HLA-DR1 transgene, or a transgenicmouse deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein thetransgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and afunctional HLA class II transgene, and has the genotypeHLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°; and assaying for a TH HLA-DR1 restricted Thelper epitope response in the mouse to the antigen. Observation of a THHLA-DR1 restricted T helper epitope response in the mouse to the antigenidentifies an epitope that elicits a TH HLA-DR1 restricted T helperepitope response in the antigen.

In addition, this invention provides an isolated antigen comprising anHLA DR1-restricted T helper epitope identified by the method of thepreceding paragraph. In some embodiments, the isolated antigen furtherincludes an epitope that elicits a humoral response and/or an epitopethat elicits a CTRL HLA-A2 restricted response. In some embodiments, theantigen comprising an HLA DR1-restricted T helper epitope comprises apolypeptide. In other embodiments, the antigen comprising an HLADR1-restricted T helper epitope comprises a polynucleotide. In furtherembodiments, the antigen comprising an HLA DR1-restricted T helperepitope comprises DNA, RNA, or DNA and RNA.

Further, this invention provides a method of identifying the presence ofan HLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic (CTL) epitope in a candidate antigen orgroup of candidate antigens, the method comprising administering thecandidate antigen or group of candidate antigens to a transgenic mousecomprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, afunctional HLA-A2 transgene, and a functional HLA-DR1 transgene, or atransgenic mouse deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules,wherein the transgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class Itransgene and a functional HLA class II transgene, and has the genotypeHLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°; and assaying for an HLA-A2-restricted Tcytotoxic (CTL) response in the mouse to the antigen or group ofantigens. Observation of an HLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic (CTL) responsein the mouse to the antigen or group of antigens identifies an epitopethat elicits a an HLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic (CTL) response in theantigen or group of antigens.

This invention provides an isolated antigen comprising anHLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic (CTL) epitope identified by the method ofthe preceding paragraph. In some embodiments, the antigen furthercomprises an epitope that elicits a humoral response and/or an epitopethat elicits a TH HLA-DR1 restricted T helper epitope response. In someembodiments, the antigen comprising an HLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic(CTL) epitope comprises a polypeptide. In other embodiments, the antigencomprising an HLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic (CTL) epitope comprises apolynucleotide. In further embodiments, the antigen comprising anHLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic (CTL) epitope comprises, DNA, RNA, or DNAand RNA.

This invention also provides a method of comparing the efficiency of theT-helper cell response induced by two or more vaccines. This methodcomprises administering a first candidate vaccine to a transgenic mousecomprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, afunctional HLA-A2 transgene, and a functional HLA-DR1 transgene, or atransgenic mouse deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules,wherein the transgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class Itransgene and a functional HLA class II transgene, and has the genotypeHLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°, and measuring the T-helper cell responseinduced in the mouse by the first candidate vaccine; administering asecond candidate vaccine to a transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA-A2transgene, and a functional HLA-DR1 transgene, or a transgenic mousedeficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein thetransgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and afunctional HLA class II transgene, and has the genotypeHLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°, and measuring the T-helper cell responseinduced in the mouse by the second candidate vaccine; administering eachadditional candidate vaccine to be compared to a transgenic mousecomprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, afunctional HLA-A2 transgene, and a functional HLA-DR1 transgene, or atransgenic mouse deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules,wherein the transgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class Itransgene and a functional HLA class II transgene, and has the genotypeHLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°, and measuring the T-helper cell responseinduced in the mouse by the additional candidate vaccine, anddetermining the efficiency of each candidate vaccine to induce aT-helper cell response by comparing the T-helper cell responses to eachof the vaccines to be compared with each other. In some embodiments theT-helper cell response is an HLA-DR1 restricted response.

In addition, this invention provides a method of comparing theefficiency of T cytotoxic cell responses induced by two or morevaccines. The method includes administering a first candidate vaccine toa transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disruptedH2 class II gene, a functional HLA-A2 transgene, and a functionalHLA-DR1 transgene, or a transgenic mouse deficient for both H2 class Iand class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mouse comprises afunctional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA class IItransgene, and has the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°, and measuringthe T cytotoxic cell response induced in the mouse by the firstcandidate vaccine; administering a second candidate vaccine to a mouseof a transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, adisrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA-A2 transgene, and afunctional HLA-DR1 transgene, or a transgenic mouse deficient for bothH2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mousecomprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA classII transgene, and has the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°, andmeasuring the T cytotoxic cell response induced in the mouse by thesecond candidate vaccine; administering each additional candidatevaccine to be compared to a transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA-A2transgene, and a functional HLA-DR1 transgene, or a transgenic mousedeficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein thetransgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and afunctional HLA class II transgene, and has the genotypeHLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°, and measuring the T cytotoxic cell responseinduced in the mouse by the additional candidate vaccine; anddetermining the efficiency of each candidate vaccine to induce a Tcytotoxic cell response by comparing the T cytotoxic cell responses toeach of the vaccines to be compared with each other. In some embodimentsthe T cytotoxic cell response is an HLA-A2 restricted response.

Further, this invention provides a method of simultaneously comparingthe efficiency of T-helper cell response and T cytotoxic cell responseinduced by two or more vaccines. The method comprises administering afirst candidate vaccine to a transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA-A2transgene, and a functional HLA-DR1 transgene, or a transgenic mousedeficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein thetransgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and afunctional HLA class II transgene, and has the genotypeHLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°, and measuring the T-helper cell response and Tcytotoxic cell response induced in the mouse by the first candidatevaccine; administering a second candidate vaccine to a transgenic mousecomprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, afunctional HLA-A2 transgene, and a functional HLA-DR1 transgene, or atransgenic mouse deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules,wherein the transgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class Itransgene and a functional HLA class II transgene, and has the genotypeHLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°, and measuring the T-helper cell response and Tcytotoxic cell response induced in the mouse by the second candidatevaccine; administering each additional candidate vaccine to be comparedto a transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, adisrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA-A2 transgene, and afunctional HLA-DR1 transgene, or a transgenic mouse deficient for bothH2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mousecomprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA classII transgene, and has the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°, andmeasuring the T-helper cell response and T cytotoxic cell responseinduced in the mouse by each additional candidate vaccine; anddetermining the efficiency of each candidate vaccine to induce aT-helper cell response and T cytotoxic cell response by comparing theT-helper cell response and T cytotoxic cell response to each of thevaccines to be compared with each other. In some embodiments theT-helper cell response is an HLA-DR1 restricted response, and the Tcytotoxic cell response is an HLA-A2 restricted response.

This invention also provides a method of simultaneously determining thehumoral response, the T-helper cell response, and the T cytotoxic cellresponse of a mouse following its immunization with an antigen or avaccine comprising one or more antigens. The method comprisesadministering the antigen or the vaccine comprising one or more antigensto a transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, adisrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA-A2 transgene, and afunctional HLA-DR1 transgene, or a transgenic mouse deficient for bothH2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mousecomprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA classII transgene, and has the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°, and assayingfor a specific humoral response in the mouse to the antigen or vaccinecomprising one or more antigens, assaying for a T-helper cell responsein the mouse to the antigen or vaccine comprising one or more antigens,and assaying for a T cytotoxic cell response in the mouse to the antigenor vaccine comprising one or more antigens. In some embodiments theT-helper cell response is a TH HLA-DR1 restricted response. In someembodiments the T cytotoxic cell response is a CTRL HLA-A2 restrictedresponse.

This invention also provides a method of optimizing two or morecandidate vaccine compositions for administration to a human, based onpreselected criteria. The method includes simultaneously determining thehumoral response, the T-helper cell response, and the T cytotoxic cellresponse of a mouse following its immunization with the two or morecandidate vaccine compositions, using a method comprising administeringthe antigen or the vaccine comprising one or more antigens to atransgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2class II gene, a functional HLA-A2 transgene, and a functional HLA-DR1transgene, or a transgenic mouse deficient for both H2 class I and classII molecules, wherein the transgenic mouse comprises a functional HLAclass I transgene and a functional HLA class II transgene, and has thegenotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°, assaying for a specific humoralresponse in the mouse to the antigen or vaccine comprising one or moreantigens, assaying for a T-helper cell response in the mouse to theantigen or vaccine comprising one or more antigens, assaying for a Tcytotoxic cell response in the mouse to the antigen or vaccinecomprising one or more antigens, and selecting an optimized vaccine byapplying preselected criteria to the results. In some embodiments, thetwo or more vaccine candidates differ only in the ratio of antigen toadjuvant present in the vaccine. In some embodiments, the two or morevaccine candidates differ only in the type of adjuvant present in thevaccine.

In another aspect, the invention provides a method of determiningwhether a vaccine poses a risk of induction of an autoimmune diseasewhen administered to a human. The method comprises administering thevaccine to a transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, adisrupted H2 class II gene, a functional HLA-A2 transgene, and afunctional HLA-DR1 transgene, or a transgenic mouse deficient for bothH2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mousecomprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA classII transgene, and has the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°, and assayingfor an autoimmune response in the mouse, where observation of anautoimmune response in the mouse indicates that the vaccine poses a riskof induction of an autoimmune disease when administered to a human.

This invention also provides an isolated transgenic mouse cellcomprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene,and a functional HLA class I or class II transgene.

In addition, the invention provides an isolated transgenic mouse cellcomprising a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, afunctional HLA class I transgene, and a functional HLA class IItransgene.

In some embodiments, the HLA class I transgene is an HLA-A2 transgeneand the HLA class II transgene is an HLA-DR1 transgene. In otherembodiments, the HLA-A2 transgene comprises the HLA-A2 sequence providedin the sequence listing and the HLA-DR1 transgene comprises the HLA-DR1sequence provided in the sequence listing.

Further, this invention provides an isolated transgenic mouse celldeficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein thetransgenic mouse cell comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and afunctional HLA class II transgene. In some embodiments, the transgenicmouse cell has the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°. In otherembodiments, the HLA-A2 transgene comprises the HLA-A2 sequence providedin the sequence listing and the HLA-DR1 transgene comprises the HLA-DR1sequence provided in the sequence listing.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The invention will be more fully described with reference to thedrawings in which:

FIGS. 1A and 1B show a flow cytometric analysis of the cell-surfaceexpression of the indicated transgenic molecules. (FIG. 1A) Splenocytesfrom HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class II-KO (DR1⁺ CII⁻, left panel),HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class I-/class II-KO (A2⁺ DR1⁺ CI⁻CII⁻, central panel), and HLA-A2.1-transgenic H-2 class I-KO (A2⁺ CI⁻,right panel) mice were stained with either FITC-labeled W6/32(anti-HLA-ABC, in abcissas) or biotinylated 28-8-6S(anti-H-2K^(b)/D^(b), in ordinates) m.Ab, the latter revealed withPE-labeled anti-mouse IgG. (FIG. 1B) B220+ splenic B lymphocytes fromthe same strains of mice, were stained with FITC-labeled L243(anti-HLA-DR1, upper panels) and PE-labeled AF6-120.1 (anti-H-2 IAβ^(b),lower panels) m.Ab.

FIGS. 2A, 2B, and 2C show CD8⁺ and CD4⁺ splenic T cell numbers and BVsegment usage (based on an immunoscope analysis) in mice of theindicated genotypes. (FIG. 2A) Splenocytes from HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2class II-KO (DR1⁺ CII⁻, left panel), HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2class I-/class II-KO (A2⁺ DR1⁺ CI⁻ CII⁻, central panel), andHLA-A2.1-transgenic H-2 class I-KO (A2⁺ CI⁻, right panel) mice werestained with PE-labeled CT-CD4 (anti-mouse CD4, in ordinates) andFITC-labeled 53-6.7 (anti-mouse CD8, in abcissas) m.Ab. Numberscorrespond to percentages of CD4⁺ (upper left square) or CD8⁺ (lowerright square) T cells in total splenocytes. (FIGS. 2B and 2C)Immunoscope RT-PCR analysis of purified splenic CD8⁺ (b) and CD4⁺ (c) Tcells for BV segment family (1-20) usage using forward BV family (1-20)specific and reverse BC primers. A typical profile for a BV segmentfamily productively rearranged includes a series of peaks with aGaussian-like distribution differing in length by 3 nucleotides. TheFigure illustrates the results obtained with aHLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class I-/class II-KO representativemouse.

FIGS. 3A and 3B show HBs-specific antibody, cytolytic and proliferativeresponses. HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class I-/class II-KO micewere or not immunized by intramuscular injection of HBsAg-encodingplasmid-DNA and then individually tested. (FIG. 3A) Humoral (upperpanel), cytolytic (middle panel) and proliferative (lower panel)responses and specificity controls of a representativeHBsAg-DNA-immunized mouse. The antibody (IgG) titer against HBsAgparticles containing both middle and small HBV envelope proteins andagainst the preS2₁₀₉₋₁₃₄ peptide were determined in an ELISA assay.Cytolytic activity at different effector/target (E/T) ratios wasassessed using RMAS-HHD target cells pulsed with either relevant(HBsAg₃₄₈₋₃₅₇, HLA-A2.1-restricted ♦) or control (HBsAg₃₇₁₋₃₇₈, H-2K^(b)-restricted Δ, and MAGE-3₂₇₁₋₂₇₉, HLA-A2.1-restricted [ ]) peptide.Proliferative responses were detected using either relevant(HBsAg₁₈₀₋₁₉₅, HLA-DR1-restricted) or control (HBsAg₁₂₆₋₁₃₈, H-2IA^(b)-restricted and HIV 1 Gag₂₆₃₋₂₇₈, HLA-DR1-restricted) peptide.(FIG. 3B) Similar evaluation of the antibody (IgG, upper panel),cytolytic (middle panel) and proliferative (lower panel) responses of 6(1-6) HBsAg-DNA-immunized mice as compared to mean responses of 6 naivemice (0). Cytolytic activity at a 30/1 E/T ratio was assessed onRMAS-HHD target cells pulsed with either HBsAg₃₄₈₋₃₅₇, immunodominant(filled bars) or HBsAg₃₃₅₋₃₄₃, subdominant (grey bars) peptide.

FIG. 4 shows results of protection assays. HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenicH-2 class I-/class II-/KO mice were or not immunized twice with plasmidDNA encoding HBsAg. Fifteen days after the last immunization, they werechallenged intraperitoneally with 10⁷ PFU of rVV expressing either theHBsAg or the HBx protein. Four days later, animals were testedindividually for viral titers in ovaries. The results (rVV PFU/ovary inlog 10) are given for the HBsAg-DNA-immunized mice challenged withrVV-HBsAg (I, n=10), naive mice challenged with rVV-HBsAg (N, n=6),HBsAg-immune mice challenged with rVV-HBx (Ix, n=6) and naive micechallenged with rVV-HBx (Nx, n=6).

FIG. 5 shows the AC anti-Pre S2 response in HLA-A2+DR1+CI−CII− micefollowing a pcmv S2/S immunization.

FIG. 6 shows the T CD4 proliferative response to HLA-DR1 restrictedepitopes following immunization of HLA-A2+DR1+CI−CII− mice with pcmvS2-S.

FIG. 7 shows the T CD8 cytotoxic response to the HLA-A2 restricted HBS(348-357) peptide following an immunization of HLA-A2+DR1+CI−CII− micewith pcmv S2/S.

SEQUENCES

SEQ ID NO:1 contains the following subparts: Nucleotides 1-1205 comprisethe HLA-A2 promoter; nucleotides 1206-1265 the HLA-A2 leader sequence;nucleotides 1266-1565 the human β2 microgobulin cDNA; nucleotides1566-1610 a (Gly4Ser)₃ linker; nucleotides 1611-2440 a segmentcontaining exon 2 and part of intron 3 of HLA-A2; and nucleotides2441-4547 a segment containing part of intron 3, exons 4 to 8, and partof the 3′ non-coding region of the H₂D^(b) gene.

SEQ ID NO:2 is the nucleotide sequence of the DRA*0101 gene. Nucleotides1-15279 are the promoter located 5′ to the HLA-DR alpha gene,nucleotides 15280-15425 are exon 1, nucleotides 15344-15346 are the ATGstart codon, nucleotides 17838-18083 are exon 2, nucleotides 18575-18866are exon 3, nucleotides 19146-19311 are exon 4, and nucleotides20008-20340 are exon 5.

SEQ ID NO:3 is the nucleotide sequence of the DRB1*010101 gene.Nucleotides 7391-7552 are exon 1, nucleotides 7453-7455 are the ATGstart codon, nucleotides 15809-16079 are exon 2, nucleotides 19536-19817are exon 3, nucleotides 20515-20624 are exon 4, nucleotides 21097-21121are exon 5, and nucleotides 21750-22085 are exon 6.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The practice of the present invention will employ, unless otherwiseindicated, conventional techniques of cell biology, cell culture,molecular biology, transgenic biology, microbiology, recombinant DNA,and immunology, which are within the skill of the art. Such techniquesare explained fully in the literature. See, for example, MolecularCloning A Laboratory Manual, 2nd Ed., ed. by Sambrook, Fritsch andManiatis (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press: 1989); DNA Cloning,Volumes I and II (D. N. Glover ed., 1985); Oligonucleotide Synthesis (M.J. Gait ed., 1984); Mullis et al. U.S. Pat. No. 4,683,195; Nucleic AcidHybridization (B. D. Hames & S. J. Higgins eds. 1984); Transcription AndTranslation (B. D. Hames & S. J. Higgins eds. 1984); Culture Of AnimalCells (R. I. Freshney, Alan R. Liss, Inc., 1987); Immobilized Cells AndEnzymes (IRL Press, 1986); B. Perbal, A Practical Guide To MolecularCloning (1984); the series, Methods In ENZYMOLOGY (J. Abelson and M.Simon, eds.-in-chief, Academic Press, Inc., New York), specifically,Vols. 154 and 155 (Wu et al. eds.) and Vol. 185, “Gene ExpressionTechnology” (D. Goeddel, ed.); Gene Transfer Vectors For Mammalian Cells(J. H. Miller and M. P. Calos eds., 1987, Cold Spring HarborLaboratory); Immunochemical Methods In Cell And Molecular Biology (Mayerand Walker, eds., Academic Press, London, 1987); Handbook OfExperimental Immunology, Volumes I-IV (D. M. Weir and C. C. Blackwell,eds., 1986); and Manipulating the Mouse Embryo, (Cold Spring HarborLaboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1986).

This invention provides mice comprising (1) mutated H-2 class I andclass II molecules; and (2) expressing HLA class I transgenic molecules,or HLA class II transgenic molecules, or HLA class I transgenicmolecules and HLA class II transgenic molecules. Mice of the invention,which comprise a knock-out for both H-2 class I and class II molecules,and express HLA class I transgenic molecules and HLA class II transgenicmolecules represent a completely humanized experimental mouse that canbe used to simultaneously detect the presence of antigen-specificantibodies, an antigen-specific HLA-DRI restricted T cell response, andan antigen-specific HLA-A2 restricted T cell response. These mice areuseful to study how mutual coordination operates between a CTL response,a TH response (in particular a TH₁ or TH₂ response), and, optionally, ahumoral response. These mice represent an optimized tool for basic andapplied vaccinology studies.

The invention provides transgenic mouse comprising a disrupted H2 classI gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, and a functional HLA class I orclass II transgene. In some embodiments, the transgenic mouse comprisesa disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2 class II gene, a functionalHLA class I transgene, and a functional HLA class II transgene. Such amouse can be said to be a completely humanized experimental mouse,because it can be used to simultaneously detect the presence ofantigen-specific antibodies, an antigen-specific HLA-DRI restricted Tcell response, and an antigen-specific HLA-A2 restricted T cellresponse.

As shown, in part, in the Examples provided herein, and as is generallyclear to one of skill in the art from the disclosure,HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice have thecapacity to develop HBsAg-specific antibody, CD4⁺ helper and CD8⁺cytolytic T cell responses following DNA immunization. These responses,observed in every single mouse tested, were directed at the sameimmunodominant epitopes as human responses and conferred to theimmunized animals specific protection against a HBsAg recombinantvaccinia virus.

T helper cells are essential for full maturation of antibody responses(Katz, D. H. & Benacerraf, B., Adv Immunol 15, 1-94 (1972)) CTL primingagainst many epitopes (von Boehmer, H. & Haas, W., J Exp Med 150,1134-1142 (1979); Keene, J. A. & Forman, J., J Exp Med 155, 768-782(1982)) and CTL long-term maintenance (Matloubian, M., Concepcion, R. J.& Ahmed, R., J Virol 68, 8056-8063 (1994)). Both antibodies (Lefrancois,L., J Virol 51, 208-214 (1984)) and CTL (Zinkernagel, R. M. & Welsh, R.M., J Immunol 117, 1495-1502 (1976)) are critical components ofprotective immunity against viral infections. Potent HBsAg-specificantibody and CTL responses were in fact observed inHLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-double transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice, butnot in HLA-A2.1-single transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice. Thus,HBsAg-specific CD4⁺ T cell help is essential for generating efficientHBsAg-specific CTL and antibody responses. These results are consistentwith studies on HBsAg-immunized mice (Milich, D. R., Semin Liver Dis 11,93-112 (1991)) and HBsAg-vaccinated humans (Celis, E., Kung, P. C. &Chang, T. W., J Immunol 132, 1511-1516 (1984)), which suggest thatproduction of an anti-HBs antibody response is dependent on CD4⁺ Tcells.

Transgenic mice expressing both HLA-A2.1 class I and HLA-DR1 class IImolecules have already been derived (BenMohamed, L. et al. Hum Immunol61, 764-779 (2000)). The authors reported that both the HLA-A2.I andHLA-DR1 molecules are functional restriction elements in vivo and thatthe product of the HLA-DR1 transgene enhances the HLA-A2.1-restrictedantigen-specific CTL responses. However, the human relevance of theimmune responses in these mice is dwarfed by the fact that they stillexpressed their own H-2 class I and class II molecules, which areusually preferentially and often exclusively used as restrictingelements in response to antigens (Ureta-Vidal, A., Firat, H., Perarnau,B. & Lemonnier, F. A., J Immunol 163, 2555-2560 (1999); Rohrlich, P. S.et al., Int Immunol 15, 765-772 (2003)) (A. Pajot, unpublished results).The invention described herein overcomes this limitation by providingHLA-A2.1/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice.

In some embodiments the HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 class I-/classII-KO mice express, in a β2m-KO context, a HLA-A2.1 monochain in whichthe human β2m is covalently linked by a peptidic arm to the HLA-A2.1heavy chain. They further lack cell surface expression of conventionalH-2 IA and IE class II molecules as a result of the inactivation of theH-2 IAβ^(b) gene, since H-2 IEα is a pseudogene in the H-2^(b)haplotype. The results provided herein demonstrate that such mice aredeprived of cell surface expression of H-2 class I and class IImolecules. However, it was reported in one case that a free class Iheavy chain, in particular H-2 D^(b), may exist on the surface of aβ2m-KO mouse, and could induce an alloreactivity response. Even if thisis so, because such mice are empty of peptide, they should not interferein antigen-specific immune response (Bix, M. & Raulet, D., J Exp Med176, 829-834 (1992)). This is supported by the report of Allen et al(Allen, H., Fraser, J., Flyer, D., Calvin, S. & Flavell, R., Proc NatlAcad Sci USA 83, 7447-7451 (1986)), in which they confirmed that H-2D^(b) is expressed at the cell surface even when there is no β2m presentwithin the cell, but that such D^(b) antigen is recognized by neitherD^(b)-allospecific or D^(b)-restricted cytotoxic T lymphocytes.Furthermore, D^(b) antigens are not recognized by most monoclonalantibodies of the native D^(b).

Nonetheless, in HLA-DRα single transgenic mice, it was reported thatunconventional HLA-DRα/H-2 IEβ^(b) hybrid complexes may be expressed tosome extent on the cell surface, at least in the absence of the HLA-DRβchain (Lawrance, S. K. et al., Cell 58, 583-594 (1989)). In spite ofthis observation, these unconventional molecules were not detectedserologically on cell surfaces in HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2class I-/class II-KO mice, even with mAb (17-3-3S), which is known toreact with such hybrid molecules (Ozato, K., Mayer, N. & Sachs, D. H., JImmunol 124, 533-540 (1980)) (FIG. 1a and data not shown). In addition,the results obtained on studying HBsAg-specific and HIV 1-Gag-specific Tcell responses of these mice were all indicative of exclusive usage ofthe HLA-A2.1 and HLA-DR1 molecules as restricting elements. This arguesthat the unconventional HLA-DRα/H-2 IEβ^(b) hybrids were likely unstablecompared to conventional HLA-DRα/HLA-DRβ molecules and that they mayexist only in the absence of the HLA-DRβ chain. Mouse strains in whichthe entire (H-2 IAβ^(b), IAα^(b), IEβ^(b)) H-2 class II region has beendeleted (Madsen, L. et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96, 10338-10343(1999)), as well as the H-2 D^(b) gene, are being analyzed to completelyexclude this possibility. Preliminary analysis of splenocytes obtainedfrom the first animals revealed a CD4⁺ T cell pool restoration similarto that observed in HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class II-KO (Iaβ^(b°)) mice,suggesting that the HLA-DR1-restricted CD4⁺ T cell responses of thesenew mice should be equivalent to those of theHLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice.

The peripheral CD8⁺ T lymphocytes of HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2class I-/class II-KO mice, compared to parental HLA-A2.1-transgenic H-2class I-KO mice, are quantitatively and qualitatively similar with fulldiversification, at least in terms of BV segment usage, of the TCRrepertoire. Partial restoration compared to wild-type animals,especially of the CD8⁺ T cell pool, has been a constant observation insingle HLA-transgenic mice expressing a chimeric (a3 domain of mouseorigin) HLA-A2.1 molecule (Pascolo, S. et al., J Exp Med 185, 2043-2051(1997)). Regardless of the α3 domain substitution, the interactionremains suboptimal between mouse CD8 and HLA-A2.1 molecules, sinceco-crystal analysis has documented that human CD8 also contacts theHLA-A2.1 heavy chain α2 domain (Gao, G. F. et al., Nature 387, 630-634(1997)). Suboptimal cooperation might also occur in the endoplasmicreticulum where many molecules (TAP, tapasine, ERp 57) assist MHC classI molecule biosynthesis. However, at this stage, the only documentedfunctional difference between these mice and human endoplasmic reticulummolecules, namely the efficient transport by human but not mouse TAP ofCOOH-terminus positively charged cytosolic peptides (Momburg, F.,Neefjes, J. J. & Hammerling, G. J., Curr Opin Immunol 6, 32-37 (1994)),is not relevant for HLA-A2.1 molecules which bind peptides with ahydrophobic C-terminus, since these peptides are transported efficientlyby mouse and human TAP. Even though the number of CD8⁺ T lymphocytes islower in both single HLA-A2.1-transgenic, H-2 class I-KO mice and inHLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice, they respondefficiently against HBsAg and, importantly, the latter mice developantibody, helper and cytolytic cell responses similar to humans.

One of the difficulties hampering the design of T-epitope-based vaccinestargeting T lymphocytes is HLA class I/class II molecule polymorphism.HLA-A2.1 and HLA-DR1 molecules are expressed by a significant proportionof individuals in human populations (30 to 50% for HLA-A2.1, 6 to 18%for HLA-DR1). Even though the functional clustering of HLA class Imolecules in superfamilies is based on significant redundancy of thepresented sets of peptides³⁴, individual analysis of the responseselicited by each HLA class I isotypic or allelic variant remainsdesirable to identify the optimal epitopes they present. This isparticularly important to devise a new reagent, such as tetramer(HLA-class I or HLA-class II) to monitor the immune response. For thesame reason, it would be helpful to obtain strains of mice co-expressingHLA-A2.1 with other HLA class II molecules, even if the binding ofpeptides to HLA class II molecules is less restrictive than to class Imolecules. Based on the disclosure herein, additional HLA class I-/classII-transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice can be constructed forthese and other purposes.

Whereas HLA-transgenic H-2-KO mice enable a detailed analysis andoptimization of the immunogenicity of antigenic peptides with excellenttransposability to humans (Rohrlich, P. S. et al., Int Immunol 15,765-772 (2003); Loirat, D., Lemonnier, F. A. & Michel, M. L., J Immunol165, 4748-4755 (2000); Scardino, A. et al., Eur J Immunol 31, 3261-3270(2001)) this is less evident for vaccine adjuvant-formulation studies.This could be due to differences between the two species in the variouseffectors that are mobilized early in response to an antigenicchallenge. Increasing fundamental knowledge of innate immunity might, inthe future, lead to a more complete humanization of the mouse immunesystem.

In conclusion, the disclosure herein describes an optimized, humanizedtransgenic mouse model, whose H-2 class I (mouse β2m) and class II (H-2IAβ^(b)) genes have been deleted and replaced with equivalent humangenes HHD (HLA-A*0201), HLA-DRA*0101 and HLA-DRB1*0101. Cellularimmunity in the HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class I-/class II-KOmice is completely restricted by the human HLA molecules, with acomplete absence of immune responses restricted by the murine MHCmolecules. The absence of competition between murine MHC and human(transgenic) HLA immune responses allows for use of these mice tocharacterize epitopes in human vaccines that require collaborationbetween HLA-restricted CD4⁺ T helper and HLA-restricted CD8⁺ T cytolyticcells.

“HLA” is the human MHC complex, and “H-2” the mouse MHC complex. Thehuman complex comprises three class I α-chain genes, HLA-A, HLA-B, andHLA-C, and three pairs of MHC class II α- and β-chain genes, HLA-DR,-DP, and -DQ. In many haplotypes, the HLA-DR cluster contains an extraβ-chain gene whose product can pair with the DRα chain, and so the threesets of genes give rise to four types of MHC class II molecules. In themouse, the three class I α-chain genes are H-2-L, H-2-D, and H-2-K. Themouse MHC class II genes are H-2-A and H-2-E.

It is known in the art that genetic diversity exists between the HLAgenes of different individuals as a result of both polymorphic HLAantigens and distinct HLA alleles. Accordingly, embodiments of theinvention disclosed herein may substitute one polymorphic HLA antigenfor another or one HLA allele for another. Examples of HLA polymorphismsand alleles can be found, for example, athttp://www.anthonynolan.org.uk/HIG/data.html andhttp://www.ebi.ac.uk/imgt/hla, and in Genetic diversity of HLA:Functional and Medical Implication, Dominique Charon (Ed.), EDK Medicaland Scientific International Publisher, and The HLA FactsBook, Steven G.E. Marsh, Peter Parham and Linda Barber, AP Academic Press, 2000.

A “disrupted” gene is one that has been mutated using homologousrecombination or other approaches known in the art. A disrupted gene canbe either a hypomorphic allele of the gene or a null allele of the gene.One of skill in the art will recognize that the type of allele to beused can be selected for any particular context. In many embodiments ofthe invention, a null allele is preferred.

“Homologous recombination” is a general approach for targeting mutationsto a preselected, desired gene sequence of a cell in order to produce atransgenic animal (Mansour, S. L. et al., Nature 336:348-352 (1988);Capecchi, M. R., Trends Genet. 5:70-76 (1989); Capecchi, M. R., Science244:1288-1292 (1989); Capecchi, M. R. et al., In: Current Communicationsin Molecular Biology, Capecchi, M. R. (ed.), Cold Spring Harbor Press,Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1989), pp. 45-52; Frohman, M. A. et al., Cell56:145-147 (1989)).

It is now be feasible to deliberately alter any gene in a mouse(Capecchi, M. R., Trends Genet. 5:70-76 (1989); Frohman, M. A. et al.,Cell 56:145-147 (1989)). Gene targeting involves the use of standardrecombinant DNA techniques to introduce a desired mutation into a clonedDNA sequence of a chosen locus. That mutation is then transferredthrough homologous recombination to the genome of a pluripotent,embryo-derived stem (ES) cell. The altered stem cells are microinjectedinto mouse blastocysts and are incorporated into the developing mouseembryo to ultimately develop into chimeric animals. In some cases, germline cells of the chimeric animals will be derived from the geneticallyaltered ES cells, and the mutant genotypes can be transmitted throughbreeding.

Gene targeting has been used to produce chimeric and transgenic mice inwhich an nptII gene has been inserted into the β₂-microglobulin locus(Koller, B. H. et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (U.S.A.) 86:8932-8935(1989); Zijlstra, M. et al., Nature 342:435-438 (1989); Zijlstra, M. etal., Nature 344:742-746 (1989); DeChiaba et al., Nature 345:78-80(1990)). Similar experiments have enabled the production of chimeric andtransgenic animals having a c-abl gene which has been disrupted by theinsertion of an nptII gene (Schwartzberg, P. L. et al., Science246:799-803 (1989)). The technique has been used to produce chimericmice in which the en-2 gene has been disrupted by the insertion of annptII gene (Joyner, A. L. et al., Nature 338:153-155 (1989)).

In order to utilize the “gene targeting” method, the gene of interestmust have been previously cloned, and the intron-exon boundariesdetermined. The method results in the insertion of a marker gene (e.g.,an nptII gene) into a translated region of a particular gene ofinterest. Thus, use of the gene targeting method results in the grossdestruction of the gene of interest.

Significantly, the use of gene targeting to alter a gene of a cellresults in the formation of a gross alteration in the sequence of thatgene. The efficiency of gene targeting depends upon a number ofvariables, and is different from construct to construct.

The chimeric or transgenic animal cells of the present invention areprepared by introducing one or more DNA molecules into a cell, which maybe a precursor pluripotent cell, such as an ES cell, or equivalent(Robertson, E. J., In: Current Communications in Molecular Biology,Capecchi, M. R. (ed.), Cold Spring Harbor Press, Cold Spring Harbor,N.Y. (1989), pp. 39-44). The term “precursor” is intended to denote onlythat the pluripotent cell is a precursor to the desired (“transfected”)pluripotent cell, which is prepared in accordance with the teachings ofthe present invention. The pluripotent (precursor or transfected) cellcan be cultured in vivo in a manner known in the art (Evans, M. J. etal., Nature 292:154-156 (1981)) to form a chimeric or transgenic animal.

Any ES cell can be used in accordance with the present invention. It is,however, preferred to use primary isolates of ES cells. Such isolatescan be obtained directly from embryos, such as the CCE cell linedisclosed by Robertson, E. J., In: Current Communications in MolecularBiology, Capecchi, M. R. (ed.), Cold Spring Harbor Press, Cold SpringHarbor, N.Y. (1989), pp. 39-44), or from the clonal isolation of EScells from the CCE cell line (Schwartzberg, P. A. et al., Science246:799-803 (1989), which reference is incorporated herein byreference). Such clonal isolation can be accomplished according to themethod of E. J. Robertson (In: Teratocarcinomas and Embryonic StemCells: A Practical Approach, (E. J. Robertson, Ed.), IRL Press, Oxford,1987), which reference and method are incorporated herein by reference.The purpose of such clonal propagation is to obtain ES cells, which havea greater efficiency for differentiating into an animal. Clonallyselected ES cells are approximately 10-fold more effective in producingtransgenic animals than the progenitor cell line CCE. For the purposesof the recombination methods of the present invention, clonal selectionprovides no advantage.

An example of ES cell lines, which have been clonally derived fromembryos, are the ES cell lines, AB1 (hprt⁺) or AB2.1 (hprt⁻). The EScells are preferably cultured on stromal cells (such as STO cells(especially SNC4 STO cells) and/or primary embryonic fibroblast cells)as described by E. J. Robertson (In: Teratocarcinomas and Embryonic StemCells: A Practical Approach, (E. J. Robertson, Ed., IRL Press, Oxford,1987, pp 71-112), which reference is incorporated herein by reference.Methods for the production and analysis of chimeric mice are disclosedby Bradley, A. (In: Teratocarcinomas and Embryonic Stem Cells: APractical Approach, (E. J. Robertson, Ed.), IRL Press, Oxford, 1987, pp113-151), which reference is incorporated herein by reference. Thestromal (and/or fibroblast) cells serve to eliminate the clonalovergrowth of abnormal ES cells. Most preferably, the cells are culturedin the presence of leukocyte inhibitory factor (“lif”) (Gough, N. M. etal., Reprod. Fertil. Dev. 1:281-288 (1989); Yamamori, Y. et al., Science246:1412-1416 (1989), both of which references are incorporated hereinby reference). Since the gene encoding lif has been cloned (Gough, N. M.et al., Reprod. Fertil. Dev. 1:281-288 (1989)), it is especiallypreferred to transform stromal cells with this gene, by means known inthe art, and to then culture the ES cells on transformed stromal cellsthat secrete lif into the culture medium.

As used herein, the term “transgene” refers to a nucleic acid sequence,which is partly or entirely heterologous, i.e., foreign, to thetransgenic animal or cell into which it is introduced, or, is homologousto an endogenous gene of the transgenic animal or cell into which it isintroduced, but which is designed to be inserted, or is inserted, intothe animal's genome in such a way as to alter the genome of the cellinto which it is inserted (e.g., it is inserted at a location whichdiffers from that of the natural gene or its insertion results in aknockout). A transgene can be operably linked to one or moretranscriptional regulatory sequences and any other nucleic acid, such asintrons, that may be necessary for optimal expression of a selectednucleic acid. Exemplary transgenes of the present invention encode, forinstance an H-2 polypeptide. Other exemplary transgenes are directed todisrupting one or more HLA genes by homologous recombination withgenomic sequences of an HLA gene.

A “functional transgene” is one that produces an mRNA transcript, whichin turn produces a properly processed protein in at least one cell ofthe mouse comprising the transgene. One of skill will realize that thediverse set of known transcriptional regulatory elements and sequencesdirecting posttranscriptional processing provide a library of optionsfrom which to direct the expression of a transgene is a host mouse. Inmany embodiments of the invention, expression of an HLA transgene underthe control of an H-2 gene regulatory element may be preferred.

In some embodiments, the HLA class I transgene is an HLA-A2 transgeneand the HLA class II transgene is an HLA-DR1 transgene. An example of anHLA-A2 transgene is one that comprises the HLA-A2 sequence provided inthe sequence listing. An example of an HLA-DR1 transgene is one thatcomprises the HLA-DR1 sequence provided in the sequence listing.

In an embodiment, the invention provides a transgenic mouse deficientfor both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein the transgenic mousecomprises a functional HLA class I transgene and a functional HLA classII transgene. In some embodiments, the mouse has the genotypeHLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°. In other embodiments the HLA-A2 transgenecomprises the HLA-A2 sequence provided in the sequence listing and theHLA-DR1 transgene comprises the HLA-DR1 sequence provided in thesequence listing.

The invention also provides isolated transgenic mouse cells. In somecases the cell comprises a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2class II gene, and a functional HLA class I or class II transgene. Inothers, the cell comprises a disrupted H2 class I gene, a disrupted H2class II gene, a functional HLA class I transgene, and a functional HLAclass II transgene. The HLA class I transgene can be an HLA-A2 transgeneand the HLA class II transgene can be an HLA-DR1 transgene. In somecases, the HLA-A2 transgene comprises the HLA-A2 sequence provided inthe sequence listing and the HLA-DR1 transgene comprises the HLA-DR1sequence provided in the sequence listing.

In an embodiment, the invention provides an isolated transgenic mousecell deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein thetransgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and afunctional HLA class II transgene. The isolated transgenic mouse cellscan have the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°. The HLA-A2 transgene cancomprise the HLA-A2 sequence provided in the sequence listing and theHLA-DR1 transgene can comprise the HLA-DR1 sequence provided in thesequence listing.

The isolated transgenic mouse cells of the invention can have thegenotype of any mouse of the invention. However, the set of genotypes ofthe isolated transgenic mouse cells of the invention, and the set ofgenotypes of the mice of the invention are not necessarily entirelyoverlapping.

The isolated mouse cells of the invention can be obtained from a mouseor mouse embryo. In one embodiment, the mouse or mouse embryo has thesame genotype as the cell to be obtained. In another embodiment, themouse or mouse embryo has a different genotype than the cell to beobtained. After the cell is obtained from the mouse or mouse embryo, agene of the cell can be disrupted by, for example, homologousrecombination. Additionally, a functional transgene can be introducedinto the genome of the cell by, for example, transfection. One of skillin the art will recognize that any suitable method known in the art canbe applied to modify the genome of the cell to thereby obtain anisolated mouse cell having the desired genotype.

An additional object of the invention is an isolated transgenic mousecell deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein thetransgenic mouse cell comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and afunctional HLA class II transgene. In some embodiments, the transgenicmouse cell has the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°. In otherembodiments, the HLA-A2 transgene comprises the HLA-A2 sequence providedin the sequence listing and the HLA-DR1 transgene comprises the HLA-DR1sequence provided in the sequence listing.

T cells play a central role in many aspects of acquired immunity,carrying out a variety of regulatory and defensive functions. When someT cells encounter an infected or cancerous cell, they recognize it asforeign and respond by acting as killer cells, killing the host's owncells as part of the cell-mediated immune response. Other T cells,designated helper T cells, respond to perceived foreign antigens bystimulating B cells to produce antibodies, or by suppressing certainaspects of a humoral or cellular immune response.

T helper cells (Th) orchestrate much of the immune response via theproduction of cytokines. Although generally identifiable as bearing theCD4 cell surface marker, these cells are functionally divided into Th1or Th2 subpopulations according to the profile of cytokines they produceand their effect on other cells of the immune system.

The Th1 cells detect invading pathogens or cancerous host cells througha recognition system referred to as the T cell antigen receptor. Termedcellular immunity, Th1-related processes generally involve theactivation of non-B cells and are frequently characterized by theproduction of IFN-γ. Nevertheless, although the Th1 system is primarilyindependent from the production of humoral antibodies, Th1 cytokines dopromote immunoglobulin class switching to the IgG_(2a) isotype.

Upon detection of a foreign antigen, most mature Th1 cells direct therelease of IL-2, IL-3, IFN-γ, TNF-β, GM-CSF, high levels of TNF-α,MIP-1α, MIP-1β, and RANTES. These cytokines promote delayed-typehypersensitivity and general cell-mediated immunity. IL-2, for instance,is a T cell growth factor that promotes the production of a clone ofadditional T cells sensitive to the particular antigen that wasinitially detected. The sensitized T cells attach to and attack cells orpathogens containing the antigen.

In contrast, mature Th2 cells tend to promote the secretion of IL-3,IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-9, IL-10, IL-13, GM-CSF, and low levels of TNF-α.In addition, the Th2 response promotes humoral immunity by activating Bcells, stimulating antibody production and secretion, and inducing classswitching to IgA, IgG₁ and IgE isotypes.

As used herein, an “antigen” comprises: 1) at least one HTL epitope, or2) at least one CTL epitope or, 3) at least one B cell epitope, or 4) atleast one HTL epitope and at least one CTL epitope, or 5) at least oneHTL epitope and at least one B cell epitope, or 6) at least one CTLepitope and at least one B cell epitope, or 7) at least one HTL epitopeand at least one CTL epitope and at least one B cell epitope. A“candidate antigen” is a molecule that is under investigation todetermine whether it functions as an antigen.

A “humoral immune response” is antibody-mediated specific immunity.

An “epitope” is a site on an antigen that is recognized by the immunesystem. An antibody epitope is a site on an antigen recognized by anantibody. A T-cell epitope is a site on an antigen that binds to an MHCmolecule. A TH epitope is one that binds to an MHC class II molecule. ACTL epitope is one that binds to an MHC class I molecule.

The antigen can comprise a polypeptide sequence or a polynucleotidesequence, which can comprise RNA, DNA, or both. In one embodiment, theantigen comprises at least one polynucleotide sequence operationallyencoding one or more antigenic polypeptides. Used in this context, theword “comprises” intends that at least one antigenic polypeptide isprovided by the transcription and/or translation apparatus of a hostcell acting upon an exogenous polynucleotide that encodes at least oneantigenic polypeptide, as described, for example in U.S. Pat. Nos.6,194,389 and 6,214,808.

Antigens of the invention can be any antigenic molecule. Antigenicmolecules include: proteins, lipoproteins, and glycoproteins, includingviral, bacterial, parasitic, animal, and fungal proteins such asalbumins, tetanus toxoid, diphtheria toxoid, pertussis toxoid, bacterialouter membrane proteins (including meningococcal outer membraneprotein), RSV-F protein, malarial derived peptide, B-lactoglobulin B,aprotinin, ovalbumin, lysozyme, and tumor associated antigens such ascarcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), CA 15-3, CA 125, CA 19-9, prostratespecific antigen (PSA), and the TAA complexes of U.S. Pat. No.5,478,556, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety;carbohydrates, including naturally-occurring and syntheticpolysaccharides and other polymers such as ficoll, dextran,carboxymethyl cellulose, agarose, polyacrylamide and other acrylicresins, poly (lactide-co-glycolide), polyvinyl alcohol, partiallyhydrolyzed polyvinyl acetate, polyvinylpryrolidine, Group B Steptococcaland Pneumococcal capsular polysaccharides (including type III),Pseudomonas aeruginosa mucoexopolysaccharide, and capsularpolysaccharides (including fisher type I), and Haemophilus influenzaepolysaccharides (including PRP); haptens, and other moieties comprisinglow molecular weight molecules, such as TNP, saccharides,oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, peptides, toxins, drugs, chemicals,and allergens; and haptens and antigens derived from bacteria,rickettsiae, fungi, viruses, parasites, including Diphtheria, Pertussis,Tetanus, H. influenzae, S. pneumoniae, E. coli, Klebsiella, S. aureus,S. epidermidis, N. meningiditis, Polio, Mumps, measles, rubella,Respiratory Syncytial Virus, Rabies, Ebola, Anthrax, Listeria, HepatitisA, B, C, Human Immunodeficiency Virus I and II, Herpes simplex types 1and 2, CMV, EBV, Varicella Zoster, Malaria, Tuberculosis, Candidaalbicans, and other candida, Pneumocystis carinii, Mycoplasma,Influenzae virus A and B, Adenovirus, Group A streptococcus, Group Bstreptococcus, Pseudomonas aeryinosa, Rhinovirus, Leishmania,Parainfluenzae, types 1, 2 and 3, Coronaviruses, Salmonella, Shigella,Rotavirus, Toxoplasma, Enterovirusses, and Chlamydia trachomatis andpneumoniae.

As used herein, a pharmaceutical composition or vaccine comprises atleast one immunological composition, which can be dissolved, suspended,or otherwise associated with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier orvehicle. Any pharmaceutically acceptable carrier can be employed foradministration of the composition. Suitable pharmaceutical carriers aredescribed in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 18th Edition (A.Gennaro, ed., 1990) Mack Pub., Easton, Pa., which is incorporated hereinby reference in its entirety. Carriers can be sterile liquids, such aswater, polyethylene glycol, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), oils, includingpetroleum oil, animal oil, vegetable oil, peanut oil, soybean oil,mineral oil, sesame oil, and the like. Carriers can be in the form ofmists, sprays, powders, waxes, creams, suppositories, implants, salves,ointments, patches, poultices, films, or cosmetic preparations.

Proper formulation of the pharmaceutical composition or vaccine isdependent on the route of administration chosen. For example, withintravenous administration by bolus injection or continuous infusion,the compositions are preferably water soluble, and saline is a preferredcarrier. For transcutaneous, intranasal, oral, gastric, intravaginal,intrarectal, or other transmucosal administration, penetrantsappropriate to the barrier to be permeated can be included in theformulation and are known in the art. For oral administration, theactive ingredient can be combined with carriers suitable for inclusioninto tablets, pills, dragees, capsules, liquids, gels, syrups, slurries,suspensions, and the like. Time-sensitive delivery systems are alsoapplicable for the administration of the compositions of the invention.Representative systems include polymer base systems, such aspoly(lactide-glycoside), copolyoxalates, polycaprolactones, polyesteramides, polyorthoesters, polyhydroxybutyric acid and polyanhydrides. Theseand like polymers can be formulated into microcapsules according tomethods known in the art, for example, as taught in U.S. Pat. No.5,075,109, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.Alternative delivery systems appropriate for the administration of thedisclosed immunostimulatory compounds of the invention include thosedisclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,194,389, 6,024,983, 5,817,637, 6,228,621,5,804,212, 5,709,879, 5,703,055, 5,643,605, 5,643,574, 5,580,563,5,239,660, 5,204,253, 4,748,043, 4,667,014, 4,452,775, 3,854,480, and3,832,252 (each of which is incorporated herein by reference in itsentirety).

Aqueous dextrose and glycerol solutions can also be employed as liquidcarriers, particularly for injectable or aerosol solutions. Foradministration by aerosol, as by pressurized spray or nebulizer,suitable propellants can be added as understood by those familiar withthe art. The immunological composition can also be formulated withsolubilizing agents; emulsifiers; stabilizers; dispersants; flavorants;adjuvants; carriers; topical anesthetics, such as lidocaine, xylocaine,and the like; antibiotics; and known or suspected anti-viral,anti-fungal, anti-parasitic, or anti-tumor compounds.

An “adjuvant” is a composition that promotes or enhances an immuneresponse to a target antigen. One of skill in the art can select anappropriate adjuvant for use in practicing the present invention in viewof the disclosure herein.

The present invention encompasses methods of treating a patient in needof immune stimulation by administering a composition comprising one ormore antigens of the invention. As used herein, treatment encompassescorrective, restorative, ameliorative, and preventive methods relatingto any disease, condition, abnormality, or symptom. Treatment furtherencompasses the elicitation or suppression of an immune response in anexperimental animal or ex vivo.

Thus, treatment comprises administering an immunostimulatory amount ofany of the immunostimulatory compositions of the invention by any methodfamiliar to those of ordinary skill in the art, commonly including oraland intranasal routes, and intravenous, intramuscular, and subcutaneousinjections, but also encompassing, intraperitoneal, intracorporeal,intra-articular, intraventricular, intrathecal, topical, tonsillar,mucosal, transdermal, intravaginal administration and by gavage.

As is recognized by the skilled practitioner, choosing an appropriateadministration method may contribute to the efficacy of a treatment, andlocal administration may be preferred for some applications. Acceptableroutes of local administration include subcutaneous, intradermal,intraperitoneal, intravitreal, inhalation or lavage, oral, intranasal,and directed injection into a predetermined tissue, organ, joint, tumor,or cell mass. For example, mucosal application or injection into mucosallymph nodes or Peyer's patches may promote a humoral immune responsewith substantial IgA class switching. Alternatively, targeted injectioninto a lesion, focus, or affected body site may be applicable for thetreatment of solid tumors, localized infections, or other situsrequiring immune stimulation.

Alternatively, cells of the immune system (e.g., T cells, B cells, NKcells, or oligodendrocytes) can be removed from a host and treated invitro. The treated cells can be further cultured or reintroduced to apatient (or to a heterologous host) to provide immune stimulation to thepatient or host. For example, bone marrow cells can be aspirated from apatient and treated with an HDR to stimulate global or specificimmunity. High-dose radiation, or comparable treatments, can then beused to destroy the remaining immune cells in the patient. Uponre-implantation, the autologous stimulated cells will restore normalimmune function in the patient. Alternatively, NK and/or T cellsisolated from a patient suffering from cancer may be exposed in vitro toone or more antigens specific to the patient's cancer. Uponre-implantation into the patient, the antigen-stimulated cells willdeploy a vigorous cellular immune response against the cancerous cells.

An immunostimulatory (efficacious) amount refers to that amount ofvaccine that is able to stimulate an immune response in a patient, whichis sufficient to prevent, ameliorate, or otherwise treat a pathogenicchallenge, allergy, or immunologic abnormality or condition. Animmunostimulatory amount is that amount, which provides a measurableincrease in a humoral or cellular immune response to at least oneepitope of the antigen as compared to the response obtained if theantigen is administered to the patient without prior treatment with thevaccine. Thus, for example, an immunostimulatory amount refers to thatamount of an antigen-containing composition that is able to promote theproduction of antibodies directed against an antigenic epitope ofinterest or stimulate a detectable protective effect against apathogenic or allergenic challenge or to promote a protective CTLresponse against an antigenic epitope of interest.

Treatment with an immunostimulatory amount of an antigen-containingcomposition of the invention comprises effecting any directly,indirectly, or statistically observable or measurable increase or otherdesired change in the immune response in a host, specifically includingan ex vivo tissue culture host, comprising at least one cell of theimmune system or cell line derived therefrom. Host cells can be derivedfrom human or animal peripheral blood, lymph nodes or the like.Preferred tissue culture hosts include freshly isolated T cells, Bcells, macrophages, oligodendrocytes, NK cells, and monocytes, each ofwhich can be isolated or purified using standard techniques. Observableor measurable responses include, B or T cell proliferation oractivation; increased antibody secretion; isotype switching; increasedcytokine release, particularly the increased release of one or more ofIL-1, IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-9, IL-10, IL-12, IL-13, GM-CSF,IFN-γ, TNF-α, TNF-β, GM-CSF, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, or RANTES; increasedantibody titer or avidity against a specific antigen; reduced morbidityor mortality rates associated with a pathogenic infection; promoting,inducing, maintaining, or reinforcing viral latency; suppressing orotherwise ameliorating the growth, metastasis, or effects of malignantand non-malignant tumors; and providing prophylactic protection from adisease or the effects of a disease.

Where the suppression of an immunological response is desired, forexample, in the treatment of autoimmune disease or allergy, an effectiveamount also encompasses that amount sufficient to effect a measurable orobservable decrease in a response associated with the condition orpathology to be treated.

The amount of an antigen-containing composition to be administered andthe frequency of administration can be determined empirically and willtake into consideration the age and size of the patient being treated,and the condition or disease to be addressed. An appropriate dose iswithin the range of 0.01 μg to 100 μg per inoculum, but higher and loweramounts may also be indicated. Secondary booster immunizations can begiven at intervals ranging from one week to many months later.

The following examples demonstrate certain embodiments of the invention.One of ordinary skill in the art will recognize the numerousmodifications and variations that may be performed without altering thespirit or scope of the present invention. Such modifications andvariations are believed to be encompassed within the scope of theinvention. The examples do not in any way limit the invention.

EXAMPLES

The following experimental techniques and reagents were used todemonstrate certain nonlimiting embodiments of the invention.

Transgenic Mice

The HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class II-KO (IA β^(b°)) mice were obtained atthe Institut Pasteur of Lille by crossing HLA-DR1-transgenic mice(Altmann, D. M. et al., J Exp Med 181, 867-875 (1995)) with H-2 classII-KO (IA β^(b°)) mice (Rohrlich, P. S. et al., Int Immunol 15, 765-772(2003)). The HLA-A2.1-transgenic mice, expressing a chimeric monochain(HHD molecule: α1-α2 domains of HLA-A2.1, α3 to cytoplasmic domains ofH-2 D^(b), linked at its N-terminus to the C terminus of human β2m by a15 amino-acid peptide linker) were created (Pascolo, S. et al., J ExpMed 185, 2043-2051 (1997)). HLA-A2.1 (HHD)-transgenic H-2 class I-KO andHLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class II-KO (IA β^(b°)) mice were intercrossedand progenies screened until HLA-A2.1^(+/−)/HLA-DR1^(+/−) doubletransgenic H-2-class I (β2m⁰)-/class II (IAβ⁰)-KO animals were obtainedand used for the experiments described herein. HLA-A2.1^(+/−) singletransgenic H-2-class I (β2m⁰)-/class II (IAβ⁰)-KO mice were used ascontrols in the protection assays. Mice were bred in the animalfacilities at the Institut Pasteur, Paris; all protocols were reviewedby the Institut Pasteur competent authority for compliance with theFrench and European regulations on Animal Welfare and with Public HealthService recommendations.

Genotyping

The HLA-DRB1*0101, HLA-DRA*0101 and HLA-A*0201 transgenes were detectedby PCR. Tail-DNA was extracted after overnight incubation at 56° C. in100 mM NaCl, 50 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.2, 100 mM EDTA, 1% SDS and 0.5 mg/mlproteinase K, followed by the addition of 250 μl of saturated NaClsolution and isopropanol precipitation. The samples were washed (3×) in70% ethanol and resuspended in 150 μl of 10 mM Tris-HCl, 1 mM EDTA pH 8.PCR conditions were: 1.5 mM MgCl₂, 1.25 U of Taq Polymerase, buffersupplied by the manufacturer (InVitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.), 1 cycle (7min, 94° C.), 40 cycles (30 sec, 94° C.; 30 sec, 60° C.; 1 min, 72° C.),1 cycle (4 min, 72° C.), using as forward and reverse primers, for HHD:5′CAT TGA GAC AGA GCG CTT GGC ACA GAA GCA G 3′ and 5′GGA TGA CGT GAG TAAACC TGA ATC TTT GGA GTA CGC 3′, for HLA-DRB1*0101: 5′ TTC TTC AAC GGGACG GAG CGG GTG 3′ and 5′ CTG CAC TGT GAA GCT CTC ACC AAC 3′, and forHLA-DRA*0101: 5′ CTC CAA GCC CTC TCC CAG AG 3′ and 5′ ATG TGC CTT ACAGAG GCC CC 3′.

FACS Analysis

Cytofluorimetry studies were performed on red-blood cell-depleted,Lympholyte M-purified (Tebu-bio, Le Perray en Yvelines, France)splenocytes using FITC-conjugated W6/32 (anti-HLA-ABC, Sigma, St Louis,Mo.) and biotinilated anti-28-8-6S (anti-H-2 K^(b)/D^(b), BDBiosciences, San Diego, Calif.) m.Ab. CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T lymphocytes werestained using PE-labeled CT-CD4 anti-mouse CD4 (CALTAG, South SanFrancisco, Calif.) and FITC-labeled 53-6.7 anti-mouse CD8 m.Ab (BDBiosciences). Analysis of MHC class II molecule expression was performedon B220⁺ B lymphocytes positively selected on MS columns (MiltenyiBiotec, Bergisch Gladbach, Germany). Following saturation of Fcreceptors with 2.4G2 m.Ab, expression of HLA-DR1 and H-2 IA^(b) wasanalyzed using FITC-labeled L243 (anti-HLA-DR) and PE-labeled AF6-120.1(anti-H-2 IAβ^(b)) m.Ab (BD Biosciences). Paraformaldehyde fixed cellswere analyzed with a FACSCalibur (Becton Dickinson, Bedford, Mass.).

Immunoscope Analyses

CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells from naive mice were positively selected onAuto-Macs (Miltenyi Biotec), RNA prepared using RNA Easy Kit (Qiagen,Hilden, Germany) and used for cDNA synthesis. The cDNA was PCR-amplifiedusing forward primers specific for each BV segment family and a reverseprimer shared by the two BC segments. PCR-products were subjected to arun-off-elongation with internal BC FAM-tagged primer. The run-offproducts were loaded on a 6% acrylamide/8 M urea gel for separation (7h, 35 W) with a 373A DNA sequencer (Perkin Elmer Applied Biosystem,Foster City, Calif.). Data were analyzed using immunoscope software(Pannetier, C. et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90, 4319-4323 (1993)).

Peptides

The HLA-A2 binding peptides HBsAg₃₄₈₋₃₅₇ GLSPTVWLSV and HBsAg₃₃₅₋₃₄₃WLSLLVPFV, the H-2 K^(b) binding peptide HBsAg₃₇₁₋₃₇₈ ILSPFLPL, theHLA-DR1 binding peptide HBsAg₁₈₀₋₁₉₅ QAGFFLLTRILTIPQS, the H-2 IA^(b)binding peptide HBsAg₁₂₆₋₁₃₈ RGLYFPAGGSSSG and the preS2 peptideHBsAg₁₀₉₋₁₃₄ MQWNSTTFHQTLQDPRVRGLYFPAGG were synthesized by Neosystem(Strasbourg, France) and dissolved in PBS-10% DMSO at a concentration of1 mg/ml. The numbering of the amino acid sequence of peptides startsfrom the first methionine of the HBV ayw subtype preS1 domain.

Immunization with DNA Encoding the S2-S Proteins of HBV

The pCMV-S2.S plasmid vector (Michel, M. L. et al., Proc Natl Acad SciUSA 92, 5307-5311 (1995)) coding for the preS2 and the S HBV surfaceantigens expressed under the control of the human CMV immediate earlygene promotor was purified on Plasmid Giga Kit columns under endotoxinfree conditions (Qiagen). Anesthesized mice were injected (50 μg eachside) into regenerating tibialis anterior muscles, as previouslydescribed (Davis, H. L., Michel, M. L. & Whalen, R. G., Hum Mol Genet 2,1847-1851 (1993)).

T Cell Proliferation Assay

Twelve days after the last immunization, red-blood cell-depleted,Ficoll-purified splenocytes (5·10⁶ cells/25 cm² culture flask (TechnoPlastic Products (TPP), Trasadingen, Switzerland)) were co-cultured withpeptide-pulsed (20 μg/ml), γ-irradiated (180 Gy) LPS-blasts (5·10⁶cells/culture flask) in RPMI medium supplemented with 10% FCS, 10 mMHEPES, 1 mM sodium pyruvate, 5×10⁻⁵ M 2-mercaptoethanol, 100 I.U/mlpenicillin and 100 μg streptomycin, as described (Loirat, D., Lemonnier,F. A. & Michel, M. L., J Immunol 165, 4748-4755 (2000)). On day 7, forproliferation assays, cells were plated (5×10⁵ cells/well of flatbottomed 96 well microplates, (TPP)) with peptide-pulsed irradiatedLPS-Blasts (2×10⁵ cells/well) for 72 h in complete RPMI mediumsupplemented with 3% FCS. Cells were pulsed for the final 16 h with 1μCi of (³H)-thymidine per well before being harvested on filtermateswith a TOMTEC collector (Perkin Elmer Applied Biosystem), andincorporated radioactivity was measured on a micro-β counter (PerkinElmer Applied Biosystem). Results are given as stimulation index(SI)=cpm with specific peptide/cpm with irrelevant peptide.

Measurement of CTL Activity

Cytotoxicity assays were performed on the same immune splenocytepopulations as the proliferation assays. Responder cells (5·10⁶ cells/25cm² culture flask, TPP) and stimulating peptide-pulsed (20 μg/ml),γ-irradiated (180 Gy) LPS-blasts (5·10⁶ cells/culture flask) wereco-cultured for 7 days in the same supplemented RPMI medium as forproliferation assays. Cytolytic activity was tested in a standard 4 h⁵¹Cr assay against RMA-S HHD target cells pulsed with 10 μg/ml of theexperimental or control peptides. Specific lysis, in %, was calculatedin duplicates, according to: [experimental−spontaneousrelease]/[maximal−spontaneous release]×100, substracting thenon-specific lysis observed with the control peptide.

Measurement of In Vivo Antibody Production

At various times before and after DNA injection, blood was collectedfrom mice by retrobulbar puncture with heparinized glass pipettes, andsera recovered by centrifugation were assayed for anti-HBs andanti-preS2 by specific ELISA. Purified recombinant particles containingHBV small S protein (1 ug/ml) or preS2 (120-145) synthetic peptide (1ug/ml) were used as the solid phase. After blocking with PBST (PBScontaining 0.1% Tween 20) supplemented with 10% FCS, serial dilutionswere added. After extensive washing, the bound antibodies were detectedwith anti mouse Ig (total IgG) labeled with horseradish peroxidase(Amersham, Little Chalfont, UK). Antibody titers were determined by theserial end-point dilution method. Mouse sera were tested individually,and titers were the mean of at least three determinations. Serumdilutions below 1/100 were considered negative.

Antibody Titration

Sera from immunized mice were individually assayed by ELISA (Michel, M.L. et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92, 5307-5311 (1995)) on eitherpurified HBV middle and small proteins or preS2 synthetic HBs₁₀₉₋₁₃₄.peptide, After blocking with PBS 1× supplemented with 0.1% Tween 20, 10%FCS and washings (×3), bound antibodies were detected with horseradishperoxidase-labeled anti-mouse IgG (Amersham, Little Chalfont, UK).Antibody titers (means of at least 3 determinations) were determined bythe serial end-point dilution method. Titers below 1/100 were considerednegative.

Vaccinia Challenge and Plaque Assay

DNA-injected mice were challenged intraperitoneally 12 days post lastinjection with 10⁷ PFU of recombinant vaccinia virus (Western Reservestrain) expressing either the HbsAg (Smith, G. L., Mackett, M. & Moss,B., Nature 302, 490-495 (1983)) or the HBx protein (Schek, N.,Bartenschlager, R., Kuhn, C. & Schaller, H., Oncogene 6, 1735-1744.(1991)) kindly provided, respectively, by Dr B. Moss and Dr H. Schaller.Four days later, ovaries were assayed for rVV titers by plaque assay onBHK 21 cells (Buller, R. M. & Wallace, G. D., Lab Anim Sci 35, 473-476(1985).

Example 1 Cell Surface Expression of MHC Molecules

Cell surface expression of the HLA-A2.1, H-2 K^(b)/D^(b), HLA-DR1, andH-2 IA^(b) molecules was evaluated on splenocytes by flow cytometry. Asillustrated in FIG. 1a , a similar level of HLA-A2.1 expression wasobserved in HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO miceand HLA-A2.1-transgenic, H-2 class I-KO mice, while HLA-A2.1 was absentand H-2 K^(b)/D^(b) expressed exclusively in HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2class II-KO mice. Cell surface expression of HLA-DR1 and H-2 IA^(b) wasmeasured on B220⁺-enriched B cells. As shown in FIG. 1b , a similarlevel of HLA-DR1 expression was observed inHLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice andHLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 class II-KO mice, whereas no expression wasdetected in HLA-A2.1-transgenic, H-2 class I-KO mice. Cell surfaceexpression of the transgenic molecules (especially HLA-DR1) was,however, lower than the expression of endogenous H-2 class I and classII molecules.

Example 2 Peripheral CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T Cells

CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ splenic T cell numbers were determined by immunostainingand flow cytometry analysis as illustrated in FIG. 2 a.

CD4⁺ T cells represented 13-14% of the splenocyte population in bothHLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 class I/class II-KO mice andHLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 class II-KO mice. In contrast, only 2-3% of thecells were CD4⁺ in H-2 class II-KO mice (data not shown), in agreementwith the initial report on mice lacking MHC class II molecules(Cosgrove, D. et al., Cell 66, 1051-1066 (1991)). As expected,expression of transgenic HLA-A2.1 molecules led to an increase in thesize of the peripheral CD8⁺ T cell population, which reached 2-3% of thetotal splenocytes in both HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 classI/class II-KO mice and HLA-A2.1-transgenic, H-2 class I-KO mice,compared to 0.6-1% in the β2 microglobulin (β2m)-KO MHC classI-deficient mice (Pascolo, S. et al., J Exp Med 185, 2043-2051 (1997)).

The results presented in Examples 1 and 2 show that:

-   -   (1) In the HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺ β2m°IAβ° mouse, the expression of        HLA-A2 molecules, the absence of expression of H2-K^(b)        molecules, the number of CD8⁺ peripheral T-lymphocytes, and the        diversity of the CD8⁺ T repertoire are generally comparable to        the HLA-A2⁺ β2m° mouse;    -   (2) In the HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺ β2m°IAβ° mouse, the expression of        HLA-DR1 molecules, the absence of expression of H2-IA^(b)        molecules, the number of CD4⁺ T-lymphocytes, and the diversity        of the CD4⁺ repertoire are generally comparable to the        HLA-DR1⁺IAβ° mouse; and    -   (3) The HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺ β2m°IAβ° mouse has all the        characteristic advantages found in HLA-A2⁺β2m° mice, and the        HLA-DR1⁺IA β° mice.

Example 3 TCR BV Segment Usage

As the presence of a single MHC class I and single MHC class II moleculecould diminish the size and diversity of the TCR repertoire, theexpression of the various BV families and the CDR3 length diversity wasstudied as previously described (Cochet, M. et al., Eur J Immunol 22,2639-2647 (1992)) by the RT-PCR-based immunoscope technique, on purifiedsplenic CD4⁺ or CD8⁺ T cells. Peaks of significant magnitude with aGaussian-like distribution were observed for most BV families (15 out ofthe 20 analyzed) in both CD8⁺ (FIG. 2b ) and CD4⁺ (FIG. 2c ) populationsof T cells. Such profiles observed on peripheral T lymphocytes aretypical of functionally rearranged BV segments with a 3 nucleotidelength variation of the CDR3 subregions from one peak to the next(Cochet, M. et al., Eur J Immunol 22, 2639-2647 (1992)).

Absence of expansion (or profoundly altered profile) as observed for BV5.3 and 17 were expected since these two BV segments are pseudogenes inC57BL/6 mice (Wade, T., Bill, J., Marrack, P. C., Palmer, E. & Kappler,J. W., J Immunol 141, 2165-2167 (1988)); Chou, H. S. et al., Proc NatlAcad Sci USA 84, 1992-1996 (1987). However, the altered profilesobserved for BV 5.1, 5.2 and 11 segments were due to a smallsubpopulation of corresponding BV-expressing T cells (they representlower than 5% in C57BL/6 mice, and around 2% in HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2class II-KO mice) (data not shown). Other than these instances, bothCD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells in HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 classI-/class II-KO mice display, respectively, a pattern of TCR BV chainusage and CDR3 diversity, which is similar to that of non-transgenicC57BL/6 mice.

Example 4 Functional Characterization

HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺ β2m°IAβ° mice immunized with Ag HBs (hepatitis Benvelope protein) were analyzed. FIG. 5 shows the specific humoralresponse, as indicated by the production of HBs S2 antibodies. FIG. 6shows the specific DR1-restricted CD4⁺ T proliferation response ofHBs₃₄₈₋₃₅₇. And FIG. 7 shows the specific HLA-A2-restricted CD8⁺cytolytic T response of the HBs₃₄₈₋₃₅₇ or HBs₃₃₅₋₃₄₃.

These results show that the HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺ β2m°IAβ° mouse allows forsimultaneous analysis of the specific humoral response, of theAg-specific HLA-DR1-restricted response of CD4⁺ T helper cells, and ofthe cytolitic response of Ag-specific HLA-A2-restricted CD8⁺ T cells inan immunized individual.

Additional data obtained from these mice is provided in the followingTables 1-3.

TABLE 1 Proliferative responses of T CD4+ against HBV virus envelopeHLA-DR1 epitopes from HLA-A2+DR1+H-2 CI-CII- transgenic miceinjected with pcmv S2-S Responder/ Stimulation positionAmino Acid sequence tested mice index 109-134 MQWNSTTFHQTLQDPRVRGLYFPAGG(12/12) 3-4 200-214 TSLNFLGGTTVCLGQ (6/12) 3-4 16/31 QAGFFLLTRILTIPQS(12/12) 3-6 337/357 SLLVPFVQWFVGLSPTVWLSV (5/12) 4-5

TABLE 2 Cytolytic response to HLA-A2+DR1+H-2 CI-CII-transgenic mice injected with pcmv S2-S Amino Acid Responder/ positionsequence tested mice Maximal lysis 348-357 GLSPTVWLS (12/12) 20-70%335-343 WLSLLVPVF (4/12) 30%

TABLE 3 Anti-PreS2 Antibody response anti ofHLA-A2+DR1+H-2 CI-CII transgenic mice injected with pcmv S2-S Responder/position Amino Acid sequence tested mice preS2MQWNSTTFHQTLQDPRVRGLYFPAGG (9/12)

Example 5 Immune Response to HBsAg-DNA-Vaccine

To evaluate the immunological potential of HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic,H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice, and to compare their humoral, CD4⁺ andCD8⁺ T cell responses to those of humans, mice were immunized with anHBsAg-DNA plasmid. This plasmid encodes two hepatitis B virus envelopeproteins (preS2/S middle and S/small) that self-assemble in particlescarrying hepatitis B surface antigen. The currently used vaccine againsthepatitis B comprises these two proteins.

As illustrated in FIG. 3a for a representative mouse, HBsAg-specificantibodies were first detected at day 12 after injection of theHBsAg-DNA-vaccine (FIG. 3a , upper panel), and the titer of theseantibodies increased up to day 24 (12 days after the second DNAimmunization, data non shown). This early antibody response was specificfor the preS2-B cell epitope (HBs₁₀₉₋₁₃₄) carried by the middle HBVenvelope protein and for HBsAg particles, in agreement with a similarresponse reported in HBsAg-DNA-immunized mice (Michel, M. L. et al.,Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92, 5307-5311 (1995)) and in HBsAg vaccinatedhumans (Moulia-Pelat, J. P. et al., Vaccine 12, 499-502 (1994)).

The CD8⁺ CTL response to HBsAg was examined to determine whether theCD8⁺ T cells in the periphery of the HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2class I-/class II-KO mouse were functionally restricted by thetransgenic human class I molecules. In HBV-infected HLA-A2.1⁺ humans,the immunodominant HLA-A2.1-restricted HBsAg-specific CTL response isdirected at the HBsAg₃₄₈₋₃₅₇ (Maini, M. K. et al., Gastroenterology 117,1386-1396 (1999)) and at the HBsAg₃₃₅₋₃₄₃ (Nayersina, R. et al., JImmunol 150, 4659-4671 (1993)) peptide (i.e., a multi-epitopic responseis observed). In C57BL/6 mice, the H-2 K^(b)-restricted HBsAg-specificCTL response is directed at the HBsAg₃₇₁₋₃₇₈ peptide (Schirmbeck, R.,Wild, J. & Reimann, J., Eur J Immunol 28, 4149-4161 (1998)). To evaluatewhether the humanized mouse may respond as humans, splenic T cells wererestimulated for 7 days, as described herein, with either relevant(HBsAg₃₄₈₋₃₅₇, HLA-A2.1-restricted), or control (HBsAg₃₇₁₋₃₇₈, H-2K^(b)-restricted; MAGE-3₂₇₁₋₂₇₉, HLA-A2.1-restricted) peptide. FIG. 3a(middle panel) shows that HBsAg-DNA-immunization elicited a strongHBsAg₃₄₈₋₃₅₇-specific CTL response, but no response to eitherHBsAg₃₇₁₋₃₇₈ or the MAGE-3₂₇₁₋₂₇₉ peptide.

To determine whether the CD4⁺ T cells in the periphery of thisHLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mouse may befunctionally restricted by the transgenic human class II molecules, theCD4⁺ T cell response to the HBsAg protein was examined. InHBsAg-vaccinated or HBV-infected HLA-DR1⁺ humans, an immunodominantHLA-DR1-restricted HBsAg-specific CD4⁺ T cell response is directed atthe HBsAg₁₈₀₋₁₉₅ peptide (Mm, W. P. et al., Hum Immunol 46, 93-99(1996)). In C57BL/6 mice, the H-2 IA^(b)-restricted HBsAg-specific CD4⁺T cell response is directed at the HBsAg₁₂₆₋₁₃₈ peptide (Milich, D. R.,Semin Liver Dis 11, 93-112 (1991)). To compare the humanized mouse withhumans and wild-type mice, splenic T cells were restimulated in vitrowith either relevant (HBsAg₁₈₀₋₁₉₅, HLA-DR1-restricted) or control(HBsAg₁₂₆₋₁₃₈, H-2 IA^(b)-restricted; HIV 1 Gag₂₆₃₋₂₇₈,HLA-DR1-restricted) peptides. FIG. 3a (lower panel) shows a strongproliferative response directed against the HLA-DR1-restrictedHBsAg₁₈₀₋₁₉₅ peptide, while the H-2 IA^(□)-restricted peptide was notefficient at stimulating a response, as expected. Similarly, no responsewas induced by the HIV 1 Gag₂₆₃₋₂₇₈ peptide. Moreover, an additional invitro recall with the HBsAg₁₈₀₋₁₉₅ peptide increased several-fold thespecific proliferative index (data not shown).

Having documented in a first HBsAg-DNA-immunizedHLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2 class I-/class II-KO mouse thedevelopment and the specificity of the HBsAg-specific antibody,proliferative and cytolytic T cell responses, 6 additionalHBsAg-DNA-immunized and 6 naive control HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic H-2class I-/class II-KO mice were also tested individually for the samethree responses. As illustrated in FIG. 3b , the three responses weresimultaneously documented in the 6 immunized animals tested and not incontrol naive mice. Interestingly, 2 immunized mice were able to developCTL responses against both HBsAg₃₄₈₋₃₅₇ and HBsAg₃₃₅₋₃₄₃ HLA-A2.1restricted peptides (FIG. 3b , middle panel).

Example 6 Protection Assays

The above examples document the induction of HBsAg-specific humoral,CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell responses in HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-transgenic, H-2class I-/class II-KO mice, and show that they are directed at the sameimmunodominant epitopes as those of naturally-infected orHBsAg-vaccinated humans. This example tested whether these responsesconferred protection to vaccinated animals. Since mice are notpermissive to HBV, a HBsAg-recombinant vaccinia virus (rVV-HBsAg) wasused for these experiments. Mice were immunized twice intramuscularlywith 100 μg of HBsAg-DNA. Twelve days after the last immunization, micewere challenged intraperitoneally with 10⁷ PFU of rVV-HBsAg. Four dayslater, virus titers were determined according to published methods andrecorded as rVV PFU/ovary (Buller, R. M. & Wallace, G. D., Lab Anim Sci35, 473-476 (1985)).

The results are illustrated in FIG. 4. Naive animals that had not beenimmunized with HBsAg-DNA showed evidence of rVV-HBsAg replication afterchallenge. In contrast, the virus titers in mice immunized withHBsAg-DNA were more than 4 orders of magnitude lower. These resultsstrongly suggest that vaccination with HBsAg-DNA induced protectiveHBsAg-specific immune responses that controlled the infection withrVV-HBsAg.

The specificity of the protection conferred by HBsAg-DNA-vaccination wasdocumented by challenging HBsAg-DNA-immunized mice with anotherHBx-recombinant VV (encoding hepatitis B×protein). No reduction ofrVV-HBx replication was observed in HBsAg-DNA-immunized mice compared tounimmunized controls.

Example 7 HLA-DR1-Restricted CD4⁺ T Cells are Critical for Antibody andCTL Responses and Protection Against Viral Infection

To evaluate whether HLA-DR1-restricted T helper lymphocytes contributeto antibody and CTL responses in the humanized mice, the immune responseand the efficiency of viral infection were compared in single (HLA-A2.1)and double (HLA-A2.1/HLA-DR1) transgenic, H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice.As shown in Table 4, a potent HBsAg₃₄₈₋₃₅₇-specific CTL response wasobserved in HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-double transgenic, H-2 class I-/classII-KO mice, but not in HLA-A2.1-single transgenic H-2 class I-/classII-KO mice. Furthermore, anti-HBs antibodies could not be detected inHBsAg-DNA-vaccinated HLA-A2.1-single transgenic H-2 class I-/class II-KOmice. As a consequence, HBsAg-DNA-immunized HLA-A2.1-single transgenicH-2 class I-/class II-KO mice were not protected against rVV-HBsAginfection.

Table 4

TABLE 4 Antibody, cytolytic, and proliferative responses of HBsAg-DNA-immunized mice, and protection against rVV-HBsAg-challenge SpecificLysis Proliferation rVV-HBsAg (%) (SI) Antibody PFU/ovary Mice 348-357335-343 179-194 Titer (log10) A 1 0 0 1 0 2.5 · 10⁸ 2 0 0 1 0 2.5 · 10⁸3 0 0 1 0 10⁸ 4 0 0 1 0 2.5 · 10⁸ 5 0 0 1 0 10⁸ 6 0 0 1 0 1.5 · 10⁸ B 130 15 4.7 2000 10⁴ 2 14 0 3.9 3000   3 · 10³ 3 30 11 4 7500   4 · 10³ 45 0 2.5 6500 7.5 · 10³ 5 50 30 6.3 13000 7.5 · 10² 6 40 18 4 16000   5 ·10² 7 6 7 2.9 1500   2 · 10⁴ 8 5 5 3 2500 1.5 · 10⁴ 9 24 36 4.5 3000<10²   10 23 14 5 15000   5 · 10³ C 1 0 0 1 0 10⁸ 2 0 0 1 0   2 · 10⁸ 30 0 1 0 1.5 · 10⁸ 4 0 0 1 0 10⁸ 5 0 0 1 0 2.5 · 10⁸ 6 0 0 1 0 10⁸

-   -   Naive HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-double transgenic H-2 class I-/class        II-KO mice (A 1-6), HBsAg-DNA-immunized HLA-A2.1-/HLA-DR1-double        transgenic H-2 class I-/class II-KO mice (B 1-10) and        HBsAg-DNA-immunized HLA-A2.1-single transgenic H-2 class        I-/class II-KO mice (C 1-6) were challenged intraperitoneally        with 10⁷ PFU of rVV-HBsAg. Four days later, PFU per ovary,        cytolytic and proliferative splenic T cell responses and serum        antibody titers were assessed individually using either        HBsAg₃₄₈₋₃₅₇, (immunodominant) or HBsAg₃₃₅₋₃₄₃ (subdominant),        HLA-A2.1-restricted peptides-loaded RMAS-HHD target cells (E/T        ratio 30/1) for cytolytic assays, HBsAg₁₇₉₋₁₉₄        HLA-DR1-restricted peptide for proliferation assays and        preS2₁₀₉₋₁₃₄ peptide for the determination of antibody (IgG)        titers.

The entire contents of all references, patents and published patentapplications cited throughout this application are herein incorporatedby reference in their entirety.

What is claimed is:
 1. A transgenic mouse comprising: a) a disrupted H2class I gene; b) a disrupted H2 class II gene; and c) a functional HLAclass I or class II transgene.
 2. A transgenic mouse comprising: a) adisrupted H2 class I gene; b) a disrupted H2 class II gene; c) afunctional HLA class I transgene; and d) a functional HLA class Htransgene.
 3. The transgenic mouse according to claim 2, wherein the HLAclass I transgene is an HLA-A2 transgene and the HLA class H transgeneis an HLA-DR1 transgene.
 4. The transgenic mouse according to claim 3,wherein the HLA-A2 transgene comprises the HLA-A2 sequence provided inthe sequence listing and the HLA-DR1 transgene comprises the HLA-DR1sequence provided in the sequence listing.
 5. A transgenic mousedeficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, wherein thetransgenic mouse comprises a functional HLA class I transgene and afunctional HLA class II transgene.
 6. The transgenic mouse according toclaim 5, having the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1^(α)β2m°IAβ°.
 7. Thetransgenic mouse according to claim 6, wherein the HLA-A2 transgenecomprises the HLA-A2 sequence provided in the sequence listing and theHLA-DR1 transgene comprises the HLA-DR1 sequence provided in thesequence listing.
 8. A method of simultaneously identifying the presenceof one or more epitopes in a candidate antigen or group of antigens,wherein the epitope elicits a specific humoral response, a TH HLA-DR1restricted response, and/or a CTRL HLA-A2 restricted response, themethod comprising: a) administering the candidate antigen or group ofcandidate antigens to the mouse of claim 3 or claim 6; b) assaying for aspecific humoral response in the mouse to the antigen; c) assaying for aTH HLA-DR1 restricted response in the mouse to the antigen; and d)assaying for a CTRL HLA-A2 restricted response in the mouse to theantigen; wherein, observation of a specific humoral response in themouse to the antigen identifies an epitope which elicits a humoralresponse in the antigen; observation of a TH HLA-DR1 restricted responsein the mouse to the antigen identifies an epitope which elicits a THHLA-DR1 restricted response in the antigen; and observation of a CTRLHLA-A2 restricted response in the mouse to the antigen identifies anepitope which elicits a CTRL HLA-A2 restricted response in the antigen.9. The method of claim 8, further comprising assaying for a Th1-specificresponse in the mouse to the antigen and assaying for a Th2-specificresponse in the mouse to the antigen; wherein observation of aTh1-specific response in the mouse to the antigen identifies an epitopewhich elicits a Th1-specific response in the mouse to the antigen; andobservation of a Th2-specific response in the mouse to the antigenidentifies an epitope which elicits a Th2-specific response in the mouseto the antigen.
 10. A method of identifying the presence of an HLADR1-restricted T helper epitope in a candidate antigen or group ofcandidate antigens, the method comprising: a) administering thecandidate antigen or group of candidate antigens to the mouse of claim 3or claim 6; and b) assaying for a TH HLA-DR1 restricted T helper epitoperesponse in the mouse to the antigen; wherein, observation of a THHLA-DR1 restricted T helper epitope response in the mouse to the antigenidentifies an epitope which elicits a TH HLA-DR1 restricted T helperepitope response in the antigen.
 11. An isolated antigen comprising anHLA DR1-restricted T helper epitope identified by the method of claim10.
 12. The isolated antigen of claim 11, wherein the antigen furthercomprises an epitope which elicits a humoral response and/or an epitopewhich elicits a CTRL HLA-A2 restricted response.
 13. The isolatedantigen of claim 11, wherein the antigen comprising an HLADR1-restricted T helper epitope comprises a polypeptide.
 14. Theisolated antigen of claim 11, wherein the antigen comprising an HLADR1-restricted T helper epitope comprises a polynucleotide.
 15. Theisolated antigen of claim 14, wherein the antigen comprising an HLADR1-restricted T helper epitope comprises, DNA, RNA, or DNA and RNA. 16.A method of identifying the presence of an HLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic(CTL) epitope in a candidate antigen or group of candidate antigens, themethod comprising: a) administering the candidate antigen or group ofcandidate antigens to the mouse of claim 3 or claim 6; and b) assayingfor an HLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic (CTL) response in the mouse to theantigen or group of antigens; wherein, observation of anHLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic (CTL) response in the mouse to the antigenor group of antigens identifies an epitope which elicits a anHLA-A2-restricted T cytotoxic (CM) response in the antigen group ofantigens.
 17. An isolated antigen comprising an HLA-A2-restricted Tcytotoxic (CTL) epitope identified by the method of claim
 16. 18. Theisolated antigen of claim 17, wherein the antigen further comprises anepitope which elicits a humoral response and/or an epitope which elicitsa TH HLA-DR1 restricted T helper epitope response.
 19. The isolatedantigen of claim 17, wherein the antigen comprising an HLA-A2-restrictedT cytotoxic (CTL) epitope comprises a polypeptide.
 20. The isolatedantigen of claim 17, wherein the antigen comprising an HLA-A2-restrictedT cytotoxic (CTL) epitope comprises a polynucleotide.
 21. The isolatedantigen of claim 20, wherein the antigen comprising an HLA-A2-restrictedT cytotoxic epitope comprises, DNA, RNA, or DNA and RNA.
 22. A method ofcomparing the efficiency of T-helper cell response induced by two ormore vaccines, the method comprising: a) administering a first candidatevaccine to a mouse of claim 3 or claim 6 and measuring the T-helper cellresponse induced in the mouse by the first candidate vaccine; b)administering a second candidate vaccine to a mouse of claim 3 or claim6 and measuring the T-helper cell response induced in the mouse by thesecond candidate vaccine; c) administering each additional candidatevaccine to be compared to a mouse of claim 3 or claim 6 and measuringthe T-helper cell response induced in the mouse by each additionalcandidate vaccine to be compared; and d) determining the efficiency ofeach candidate vaccine to induce a T-helper cell response by comparingthe T-helper cell responses to each of the vaccines to be compared witheach other.
 23. The method of claim 22, wherein the T-helper cellresponse Is an HLA DR1 restricted response.
 24. A method of comparingthe efficiency of T cytotoxic cell response induced by two or morevaccines, the method comprising: a) administering a first candidatevaccine to a mouse of claim 3 or claim 6 and measuring the T cytotoxiccell response induced in the mouse by the first candidate vaccine; b)administering a second candidate vaccine to a mouse of claim 3 or claim6 and measuring the T cytotoxic cell response induced in the mouse bythe second candidate vaccine; c) administering each additional candidatevaccine to be compared to a mouse of claim 3 or claim 6 and measuringthe T cytotoxic cell response induced in the mouse by each additionalcandidate vaccine to be compared; and d) determining the efficiency ofeach candidate vaccine to induce a T cytotoxic cell response bycomparing the T cytotoxic cell responses to each of the vaccines to becompared with each other.
 25. The method of claim 24, wherein the Tcytotoxic cell response is an HLA-A2 restricted response.
 26. A methodof simultaneously comparing the efficiency of T-helper cell response andT cytotoxic cell response induced by two or more vaccines, the methodcomprising: a) administering a first candidate vaccine to a mouse ofclaim 3 or claim 6 and measuring the T-helper cell response and Tcytotoxic cell response induced in the mouse by the first candidatevaccine; b) administering a second candidate vaccine to a mouse of claim3 or claim 6 and measuring the T-helper cell response and T cytotoxiccell response induced in the mouse by the second candidate vaccine; c)administering each additional candidate vaccine to be compared to amouse of claim 3 or claim 6 and measuring the T-helper cell response andT cytotoxic cell response induced in the mouse by each additionalcandidate vaccine to be compared; and d) determining the efficiency ofeach candidate vaccine to induce a T-helper cell response and Tcytotoxic cell response by comparing the T-helper cell response and Tcytotoxic cell response to each of the vaccines to be compared with eachother.
 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the T-helper cell response isan HLA-DR1 restricted response, and wherein the T cytotoxic cellresponse is an HLA-A2 restricted response.
 28. A method ofsimultaneously determining the humoral response, the T-helper cellresponse, and the T cytotoxic cell response of a mouse following itsimmunization with an antigen or a vaccine comprising one or moreantigens, the method comprising: a) administering the antigen or thevaccine comprising one or more antigens to a mouse of claim 3 or claim6; b) assaying for a specific humoral response in the mouse to theantigen or vaccine comprising one or more antigens; c) assaying for aT-helper cell response in the mouse to the antigen or vaccine comprisingone or more antigens; and d) assaying for a T cytotoxic cell response inthe mouse to the antigen or vaccine comprising one or more antigens. 29.The method of claim 28, wherein the T-helper cell response is a THHLA-DR1 restricted response.
 30. The method of claim 28, wherein the Tcytotoxic cell response is a CTRL HLA-A2 restricted response.
 31. Amethod of optimizing two or more candidate vaccine compositions foradministration to a human, based on preselected criteria, the methodcomprising: simultaneously determining the humoral response, theT-helper cell response, and the T cytotoxic cell response of a mousefollowing its immunization with the two or more candidate vaccinecompositions, according to claim 28; and selecting an optimized vaccineby applying preselected criteria to the results.
 32. The methodaccording to claim 31, wherein the two or more candidate vaccines differonly in the ratio of antigen to adjuvant present in the vaccine.
 33. Themethod according to claim 31, wherein the two, or more candidatevaccines differ only in the type of adjuvant present in the vaccine. 34.A method of determining whether a vaccine poses a risk of induction ofan autoimmune disease when administered to a human, the methodcomprising: a) administering the vaccine to a mouse of claim 3 or claim6; and b) assaying for an autoimmune response in the mouse; wherein,observation of an autoimmune response in the mouse indicates that thevaccine poses a risk of induction of an autoimmune disease whenadministered to a human.
 35. An isolated transgenic mouse cellcomprising: a) a disrupted H2 class I gene; b) a disrupted H2 class IIgene; and c) a functional HLA Class I or class II transgene.
 36. Anisolated transgenic mouse cell comprising: a) a disrupted H2 class Igene; b) a disrupted H2 class II gene; c) a functional HLA class Itransgene; and d) a functional HLA class II transgene.
 37. Thetransgenic mouse cell according to claim 36, wherein the HLA class Itransgene is an HLA-A2 transgene and the HLA class II transgene is anHLA-DR1 transgene.
 38. The transgenic mouse cell according to claim 37,wherein the HLA-A2 transgene comprises the HLA-A2 sequence provided inthe sequence listing and the HLA-DR1 transgene comprises the HLA-DR1sequence provided in the sequence listing.
 39. An Isolated transgenicmouse cell deficient for both H2 class I and class II molecules, whereinthe transgenic mouse cell comprises a functional HLA class I transgeneand a functional HLA class II transgene.
 40. The transgenic mouse cellaccording to claim 39, having the genotype HLA-A2⁺HLA-DR1⁺β2m°IAβ°. 41.The transgenic mouse cell according to claim 40, wherein the HLA-A2transgene comprises the HLA-A2 sequence provided in the sequence listingand the HLA-DR1 transgene comprises the HLA-DR1 sequence provided in thesequence listing.